KOTHARI COMMISSION
RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION
WITH A TEXT ON
NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION
SURESH BHATNAGAR
Ed.
Head.
Department of Education,
D. A. V. College, Dehradun.
Exclusively Distributed by :
LOYAL BOOK DEPOT
Near Government College,
MEERUT— 25000Z
Publisher :
International Publishing House,
Near Govt. College.
Meerut — 250002
@ AUTHOR
5th Revised Edition 1979
Other Book
BY THE AUTI
(In Hindi)
Price ; Rs. lO’OO
Printed at t
Sushila Printers,
Garh Road, Meerut.
A Educational Psycho
A Problems of Indian
A Mudaliar Commissi
Sujhava Aur Samiki
A Kothari Commissio
Vivechnatmak Adhj
A Child Development
Child Psychology
A Child Development
Family Relationshif
A Technology of Teac|
A Psychology of Teacl
Learning and De ,
N •:* li HARl
U' .r-; Ti' i- C t;'r-.rr.i::iori
. , t
( ■.';3:.'rr: j.-i
i.-i-t.-'. c- 196-<-t6
'3 .‘.A! vaID:-. -•
Who
Al.W.WS Hi INKS AND ACTS
roil 'ijii: CAi sp. oi'
■Jlir TDCCANDS,
'I nr PDCCATORS AND
Till! HDUCA'IION.
Preface to Fifth Edition
' ‘ Ciliic.iiioiinl system must inculcate
so fiiat every inclivicliial should pro-
‘ '• ' seeiilarisin and democracy and
V-' ic!!..'!;. strivin;; for tlic realization of princi-
• h-'rr:;., c.p.inlity and fraternity, enshrined in the
c !' r Ir <<! Iiaiia, having •;oleninly resolved to consti-
.. u i.-r. /U mo, riuir Republic and to secure to all
'.M il econoniic and political ; Z/toVy — of
.'it',''; ■ t.ii;:-. .ind iipp.iriiHiiiy and to promote among them
.;s' linn;' the (lii'nilv of individual and the unity of
, jn onr ( onMid/ci.i .-\ssenil)|y do here by adopt, eract and
' "un eh c. dll'. conMitiilion ” We look this oath on 26 th
I 1' -■■■< '.'.hen e .ulojjied our constitution,
duc.iiion IS (he iiiosi poucifiij tool of social revolution and
al thanye. Kotliari Commission has stressed this fact
dlicn 111 its rejjort. What we have achieved during this
J i- quite clear and now once again we will have to asess
ve> h'diK.ilioii IS' the back bone of our national develop-
aiid reasons are to be traced as to why we have failed in
.ing the desired goals, where the sweet dream of the teachers
joying the new social status has withered away and why the
tr’s uiui’/iu caria became futile?
rile whole structure of our society is squeaking and politics
ecome the part and parcel of our life. Politics rules over
llion and educational planners have become the puppet in
lands of politicians who always give preferences to their
t ends and contrive the national plans accordingly. This is
lubject matter of this volume. Readers will find it quite
hativc and provocative. Kothari Commission’s report, infact,
■ answer to all the questions related to educational sphere of
iountry. There is a great need of one National Education
m with the base of medium of instruction in mother-tongue
and national language? What has become the fate of nati
language? The only answer to it — Education should becom'
subject of centre in toto.
This fifth edition of the volume presents all these que;
before the decerned readers. A slight change has been do
the scheme of book. Three new cliapicrs have been added-
Panorama of Decade; (ii) Education in Sixth Plan (iii) N<
Adult Education Programme. These chapters will narra
story of educational development in the country.
The author is grateful to those authors, writers, editors
thoughts have been incorporated in the book; and especi;
Govt, of India Ministry of Education for reproducing !
the most important matter.
In the last, but not the least, the author is also gr.
Miss. Bimla Varma Principal D. W. T. College Dehr
Prof. D.K. Handa, B.T.T. College Sardar Shahr, Pro
Rahinwal and Dr. S.P. Kulshrestra of D.A.V. Collegt
Dun for their valuable suggestions which are include,
book.
Shiv Ratri : 1979
103-Moti Bazar
Dehra Dun,
— Suresh Bhi
-.;r.’.:on >>;' i::z r-Iv-c-itio;).’.! '.ys!c:ii
;o f:;r iifc, nc:-!'> ntu! .’.■.pi:.vti'>iis of
naijon ;
c iinprovctncnt of education so that the
standards acfiicvcd arc adcciuatc, keep continually
rising and, at least in a few sectors, becotnc inter-
nationally comparable ; and
expansion of educational facilities broadly on tlie
basis of manpower needs and with an accent on
equalization of educational opportunities.
Report of the Education Commission ; Education
& National Development (1964-1966)
Why This Commission ?
The Government of India had set up a Commission for
educational development vide No. F. 4113(3)64, E. 1 dated 14th
•3tt!y, 1964. The Government felt the need of re-evaluation of
education in the country. The main causes for appointing this
commission arc given below ;
1. In spite of educational expansion there is a great dissatis-
faction about several aspects of educational development.
2. The country is in need of a great economic and social
chang e and education is the only way out to bring about the
desired change.
3. The Government of India are convineed that education
is the key to national. prosperity and welfare and that on invest-
ment is likely to ^j^d'gfeater returns than investment in human
resources of which the most important component is education.
4. It is desirable to survey the entire field of educational
development as the various parts of the educational system
strongly interact with and influence one another.
5. While planning the education for India, it must necessarily
emanate from Indian experience and conditions.
1. Introduction of the members : Having considered the
above mentioned aspects, the Government set up a Commission of
seventeen persons whose names are given below :
1. Chairman — Prof. Dr. D.S. Kothari, Chairman, University
Grants Commission, New Delhi.
2. Member-Secretary — Shri J. P. Naik, Head of the Deptt.
of Educational Planning, Administration and Finance.
Gokhle Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona.
3. Associate Secretary — Mr. J. F. McDougall. Assistant
Director, Department of School and Higher Education,
UNESCO, Paris.
4. Members — (1) Sliri A.R. Dawood, Former Director, Ex-
tension Programme for Secondary Education, New Delhj,
4 Kothari Commission
(2) Mr. M. L. Elvin, Director Institute of Education,
University of London, London. (3) Shri A. R. Gopala-
swami, Director Institute of Applied Man Power Research,
New Delhi. (4) Dr. V.S. Jha, Former Director of Common
Wealth Education, Liasion Unit in London. (5) Shri
P.N. Kirpal, Educational Adviser and Secretary, Ministry
of Education, Govt, of India, New Delhi. (6) Prof. M.V.
Mathur, Ex-Vice-Chancellor, Rajasthan University,
Jaipur. (7) Dr. B. P. Paul, Director, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi. (8) Kumari S. Panadikar,
Head of the Department of Education, Karnatak Univer-
sity, Dharwar (Since-Retired). (9) Prof Roger Revelle,
Dean of Research, University of California, U. S. A.
(10) Dr. K. G. Saiyidain, Former Educational Adviser
to the Government of India, New Delhi. (11) Dr. T.
Sen*, Rector Jadavpur University, Calcutta. (12) Mr.
Jean Thomas, Inspector General of Education, France
and Formerly Assistant Director General of UNESCO.
(13) S. A. Shumovsky, Director Methodogical Division,
Ministry of Higher and Special Secondary Education.
RSFER, Moscow and Professor of Physics, Moscow
University. (14) Prof. Sadatoshi Ihara, Professor of the
first Faculty of Science and Technology, Waseda Univer-
sity, Tokyo.
2. Main Consideration: The main features of this report
are —
1. Introduction of work-experience which includes mannual
work, production experience, etc., and social service as
integral part of general education at more or less at all
level of education.
2. Stress on moral education and inculcation of a sense of
social responsibility. Schools should recognize their
responsibility in facilitating the transition of youth from
the work of school to the world of work and life.
3. Vocationalization of Secondary Education.
4. Strengthening the centres of advance study and setting up
of a small number of Universities which would aim at
achieving highest international standards.
5. Special emphasis on the training and quality of teacher
for schools.
^/Vcted as Cabinet Minister in Government of India, New Delhi in 1970.
Why This Commission ? 5
<5. Education for agriculture and research in agriculture and
allied sciences should be given a high priority in the
scheme of educational reconstruction. Energetic and
imaginative, steps arc required to draw a reasonable pro-
portion of talent to go in for advanced study and research
in agricultural science.
3. Body of the Report : The whole report is divided into
four parts. In first part problems are general as, (/) Educational
"~dnd National Objectives, (2) The Educational System : Structure
and Standards, (3) Teacher's Status, (4) Teacher's Education, (5) En-
rolment and Man-power, and {6^ Towards Equalisation of Educatio-
nal Opportunities.
In the second part of the report, the following are discussed.
(1) School Education : Problems of Expansion.
(2) School Curriculum.
(3) Teaching methods, Guidance and Evaluation.
(4) School Education ; Administration & Supervision.
(5) Higher Education : Objectives and improvement.
(6) The Governance of Universities.
(7) Education for Agriculture.
(8) Vocational, Technical and Engineering Education.
(9) Science Education and Research.
(10} Adult Education.
Third part of this report deals with the implementation of the
suggested recommendation under the following captions — (/) Edu-
cational Planning and Administration (2) Educational Finance.
In the fourth part of this report are given supplementary
papers and other information which throw light on the working
and methodology of the Commission.
The commission had started its work in Oct. 1964 and sub-
mitted its report on June 29, 1966 to the Union Education Minister.
The Commission set up 12 Task Forces and 7 Working Groups.
4. Task Force and Working Groups : Following are the
task-forces adopted by the commission for the study.
1. On School Education.
2. On Higher Education,
3. On Technical Education.
4. On Agricultural Education.
5. On Adult Education.
6. On Science Education and Research,
6 Kothari Commission
7. On Teacher's Training and Teacher^s Status.
8. On Student Welfare.
9. On New Techniques and Methods.
10. On Man -power.
1 1 . On Educational Administration.
12. On Educational Finance.
Apart from task forces, following are the working groups :
1. On Woman Education.
2. On the Education of Backward Classes.
3. On School Building.
4. On School-Community Relations.
5. On Satistics.
6. On Pre-Primary Education.
7. On School Curriculum.
The Commission interviewed about 9,000 persons of disting-
uished public career, scientist, industrialists and scholars in different
fields. The total expenditure on Commission is Rs. 1,509,185/16
and it took two years to complete its task.
The Commission stressed that there is no place for half-
hearted policies in the days ahead and Education thus needs and
demands more than anything else, hard-work and dedicated
service. Educational and national reconstruction are intimately
interrelated and that perhaps the most effective way of breaking
the vicious circle in which we find ourselves at present is to begin
educational reconstruction in a big way.
The huge and voluminious report put fourth by the commi-
ssion, shows how we are facing hardships now a days and how
can we come over these hardships and meet the demand of our
national development. The Commission did a lot in the field of
education and it was a unique in the history of Indian Education.
2
Education and National
Objectives
After pouring tlirough a bird’s eye view on the reports of two
earlier Commissions, we iiavc realised that the same ideas and
ideals should be followed by us from the date we achieved free-
dom. Three decades have passed and still we are standing on a
cross-road. We don't know our patli. We can’t say that every
road would lead us to heaven.
Now we are under the process of social change. At every
step there is a change and in a changing pattern there is a challenge
for adjustment in the society. The Commission has tried to solve
the problem of survival of the fittest.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) Education and Productivity : Education should be related
to productivity. The following programmes may be followed in
this regard :
1. Science education should become an integral part of
school education and ultimately become a part of all
courses at the University level.
2. Work experience should be introduced as an integral part
of all education.
3. Every attempt should be made to orient work-experience
to technology and industrialisation and to productive
processes including agriculture.
4. Secondary education should be increasingly and largely
vocationalized and in higher education a greater em-
phasis should be placed on agricultural and technical
education.
(2) Social and National Integration : It is one of the im-
portant objectives of education. The following steps should be
taken to strengthen national consciousness and unity.
1. The common school system of public education should
be adopted as a national goal and effectively iraplemen-
Kothari Commission
ted in a phased programme spread over the period of
20 years.
2. Social and National service should be made obligatory
for all students at all stages.
(a) Primary Stage : Social service should be on the
lines of Basic Education.
(b) Secondary Stage : 30 days’ Social Service at lower
secondary and 20 days’ for higher secondary level
in one or more stretches.
(c) Undergraduate Stage : 60 days’ Social Service in
one or more stretches.
(d) Labour and Social Service Camps : For those
students who do not participate in Social Service
programme.
(e) Social and Community Seiyice : Each institution
should organise social and community programmes.
(f) N. C. C. should be continued on its present basis
till the end of the fourth five-year plan.
3. The development of an appropriate language-policy can
materially assist in social and national integration.
4. Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction in
school and higher education.
5. Energetic action is needed to produce books and litera-
ture, particularly scientific and technical, in regional
languages in the universities with the help of U. G. C.
Also all the important scientific and technical books in
English and other foreign languages should be translated
into regional languages.
6. All India institutes should continue to use English as
the medium of education for the time being. The even-
tual adoption of Hindi should, however, be considered
in due course, subject to certain safeguards.
7. The regional languages should also be made the language
of administration for the regions concerned.
8. The teaching and study of English should be continued
right from the school stage. Other languages, particularly
Russian, should be encouraged for international
communication.
9. English will be a link lauguage in higher education for
academic work and intellectual inter-communication.
Education and National Objectives ^
X X X It is Hindi which can and should take this place
in due course.
10. Promotion of National Consciousness — A re-evaluation of
our cultural heritage is needed. For this —
(a) There should be well-organised teaching of languages,
literature, philosophy, religions, History of India,
Indian architecture, sculpture, painting, music, dance
and drama, camps, summer schools etc,, should be
organised without any barrier.
(b) Creation of a faith in the future would involve in an
attempt as a part of the courses in citizenship.
11. The educational programme in schools and colleges
should be designed to inculcate democratic values,
(3) Education and Moderni-sation : The commission has
stated that the most distinctive feature of a modern society, in a
contrast with a traditional one, is in its adoption of a science
based technology. So following recommendations are presented.
1. In a modern, society, knowledge increases at a terrific pace
and social change is very repid. x X X To develop in-
terest, attitudes and values radical alternation in the
methods of teaching and training of ^achers is needed.
2. To nTod^nisc itself, a society has to educate itself.
(4) Social, Moral and Spiritual Values : The educational
system should emphasize the development of fundamental social,
moral and spiritual values. From this point of view —
1. The Central and State Governments should adopt
measure to introduce education in moral, social and
spiritual values in ail institutions under their control (or
under local authority) on the lines recommended by the
University Education Commission and the Committee on
Religious and Moral instructions.
2. The privately managed institutions should also follow
the same.
3. Apart from the education in such values being made an
integral part of school programme, some periods should
be provided in the time table for this purpose. They
should be taken, not by especially recruited teachers but
by the general teachers, preferably from different commu-
nities considered suitable for the purpose.
4. Departments of Comparative Religions and Philosophies
of the Universities, should especially concern themselves
iO Kotliari Commission
with the ways in which these values can be taught wisely
and effectively and should undertake preparation of spe-
cial literature for use by students and teachers.
(5) Education about Religions : It is necessary for a multi-
religious democratic state to promote a tolerant study of all reli-
gions so that its citizens can understand each other better and
live together amicably. A syllabus giving well-chosen information
about each of the major religions should be included as a part of
the course in citizenship or as a part of the general education to
be introduced in school and colleges upto the first degree. It should
high-light the fundamental similarities in the great religions of
the world and emphasis they placed on the cultivation of certain
broadly comparable moral and spiritual values. It would be a
great advantage to have a common course on this subject in all
parts of the country and common text-books which should be
prepared at the national level by competent persons in each
religion.
2. THE EVALUATION
Education needs to be transformed into powerful instrument
of social change and closely linked to national development. This
way we need strong universal and everlasting educational aims to
achieve our life-goals. Traditional aims and objectives were not
considered by the commission and it has suggested (1) Education
and productivity (2) Social and national integration (3) Education
and modernisation (4) Social, moral and spiritual values (5) and
Education about religion.
It is very clear that in a democratic country like ours, edu-
cation is used as a means of socio-economic change and ah these
can only be achieved through this most powerful instrument. In
a world based on science and technology, it is education that
determines the level of prosperity, welfare and security of the
people. We have not decided the main objectives of education
till now. Hence the problem of student indiscipline is before us.
According to K. G Saiydain, “This is the problem of student
indiscipline which is like a hornet’s nest, dangerous to touch-
XXX I would say that we are all involved, we are all living in
glass houses and should be chary of throwing stones, real or
metaphorical at one another,”^ This is clear pro of of the tenden-
1. Saiyiaain K. G; ‘Student Indiscipline.’ Convocation address — Sardar
Patel University. Quoted from Journal of Education and Psychology.
Volume XXIV. No, 4. January, 1967.
Concluding tiic discussion \vc say tJiat this Commission has
suggested that the education should be for (h e national d evelop-
nient. This aim is an inspiration to*malcc~progress in every sphere
of life. In the history of nations, in the developing areas of the
'vorld, every attempt should be made to preserve the confinuty of
national life although progress demands utilisation of modern
science and technology. It should be the object of education to
maintain a correct balance between what is valuable in the legacy
inherited from the past and the needs and requirements of present
day.”
The Commission says— Tf science and a/wn'sa join together in
creative synthesis of belief and action, mankind will attain to a
new level of purposefulness, prosperity and spiritual insight.’ The
Commission supplemented the above statement with words of
(iawahar Lai Nehru — ‘Can we combine the progress of science and
12 Kotiiari Coinmissloil
technology with this progress of the mind and spirit also ? We
cannot be untrue to science because that represents the basic fact
of life today. Still less can we be untrue to those essential
principles for which India has stood in the past throughout the
ages. Let us then pursue our path to industrial progress with all
our strength and vigour and at the same time remember that
material riches without toleration and compassion and wisdom
may well turn to dust and ashes.’
According to Prem Kripal — The Commission has recommended
that education should be related to the productivity by emphasing
science education, research vocationalization and by including
work experience as an integral part of all education at all stages.
It has also suggested a programme for the development of common
school system of public education, a compulsory social and
national service for young people and the development of Hindi
and the other modern Indian languages to achieve social and
national integration and to promote national consciousness as well
as international understanding. It has also emphasied the cultiva-
tion of social and moral values and inculcation of a sense of social
responsibility in the rising generation.’^ We can say that recom-
mendations for national development, is a spark which leads to
the whole light : This will lead to the fulfilment of the dream we
see today.
1. Prem Kripal : A Decade of Education in India. Delhi 1968, p. 17
3 Educational System :
Structure and Standard s
The Co ''.-or-, <:co.It u jtli tlic problem of structure «' ■
p.itjcrn of cJue.^tion.i! course;, the diirntion of the total course ■
iti ciifTcrcnt rettcr utili>.o.tioti x'>r time and other cducatio-
^:iC!!i!;r^. The Corrov.r'-ion has discu'ised all the three chanr ■
of cduc.-itic'.': ; time, part time and own time.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
I'ollov. j'ne arc the m.ain recommendations on cducatio:.
s>.‘lcm, its Jtfueturc and standards.
fl) Structure and Duration— 1. The .standard of cducat
depends on fuir clcn;cMt< : (i) 7hc .structure of the div'ision ’
the cdur.'itional pyramid into dilTercnt levels or stage and tl ■
inter-relationship. (lii T/ic duration or total period covered by :! ;
diJTcrcnt stapes tiii) Tire quality of teachers, ciirriculla, methi , '
of tcachinp and cvrsluation, equipment and building, (iv) 1 . v
utilis.'iiion of available facilities.
2. The reorganization should be carried out through a pi
sed programme spread over at least 20 years.
3. The new educational structure should consists of— (i) One
to three years of pre school education, (ii) A ten-years
period of general education which may be subdivided
into primary stage of 7 to 8 years (a lower primay stage
of 4 or 5 years and a higher primary stage of 2 to 3 years
and lower secondary stage of 2 or 3 years of general edu-
cation or one to three years of vocational education (the
enrolement in vocational courses being raised to 20% of
the total), (iii) A higher secondary stage of two years
of general education or one to three years of vocational
education (the enrolement in vocational education being
raised to 50% of the total), (iv) A higher education stage
having a courses of three years or more for the first degree
and followed by the courses of varying durations for the
second or research degrees.
14 Kothari Commission
4. The age of admission fo class I should ordinarily be not
Jess than 6.
5. The first public external examination should come at the
end of the first ten years of schooling.
6. The system of streaming in schools of general education
from class IX should be abandoned and no attempt at
specialisation made until beyond class X.
7. The secondary schools should be of two types — (i) High
schools providing a ten year course, (ii) Higher Secon-
dary schools providing a course of II or 12 years.
8. Attempts to upgrade every secondary school to higher
secondary stage should be abandoned. Only bigger and
more efficient school (about one fourth of the total num-
ber) should be upgraded. Institutions which do not
deserve the higher secondary status should be down
graded.
9. A new higher secondary course beginning in class IX
should be instituted. Classes XI & XII (during transi-
tional period class XI only) should provide specialised
studies in different subjects. Where, however, existing
higher secondary school with integrated course in classes
IX, X and XI are running satisfactorily, the arrangement
may continue until class XII is added.
(2) Transfer for the Pre-University Course: (I) The pre-
university course should be transferred from the university and
colleges to higher secondary schools by 1 975.-76. (2) The U. G. C.
should be responsible for affecting the transfer of all pre-univer-
sity or intermediate work from university and affiliated colleges to
schools. (3) Higher secondary class or classes should be started
in selected schools by the State Education Department. (4) Board
of Secondary Education should be reconstituted to accept tbe
responsibility for the higher secondary stage also.
(3) Lengthening the Duration of the Higher Secondary Stage;
(1) In fourth plan efforts should be continued for the preparation
of implementing the programme and lengthening the duration of
the course in a few selected institutions as pilot projects. (2) The
pogramme of lengthening the duration of the higher secondary
stage should begin in the fifth plan and be completed by the end
of the seventh plan.
(4) Reorganization of the University Stage : (I) The dura-
fion of the first degree should not be less than three years. The
Educational System : Structure and Standards 15
duration of the second degree may he 2 to 3 years. (2) Some
Universities should start graduate schools with a three years
Master’s degree course in certain subjects. (3) Three-year spe-
cial courses for the first degree which begin at the end of the first
year of the present three-year degree courses should be started in
selected subjects and in selected institutions. (4) Suitable bridges
should be built between the existing courses and the new (longer)
courses, (5) Incentives in the from of scholarships etc. should be
provided for those who take up longer courses.
(5) Utilization of Facilities : I. Proper utilization of the
existing facilities should be made. 2. Instructional days should
be as '^follows : (i) 36 weeks in schools (ii) 39 weeks in coll-
eges. Loss of instructional days due to examminations and other
factors should not be less than 21 days in schools and 27 days in
colleges.
3. Vacations should be utilsed fully through participation
in studies, social service camps, preduction experience,
literacy drives etc.
4.
5.
6 .
7.
Emphasis should be laid on self study.
Steps should be taken to ensure full utilization of insti-
tutional facilities such as liberaries, laboratories, work-
shops, craft-sheds, etc. all the year round.
Wastaae should be reduced at every stage.
Standard should be at National and State levels .
(i) Universities and colleges shonW assist secondao
schools in improving their efficiency tbrongh a varw
or measures, (ii) Such school J’;’
secondary school and all jj"”; ,
schools within its neighbourhood should be
the schools in such a complex should gron up from .
cooperative group working for improvement. ^
(6) Part-time Education— Part time ana
should be developed on large scale at ever} s ag ^
of educatian and should be given the same status .-s fa.i tt^.
education.
(7) Nomenclature :
(7) iNomenciature ■ e'-o’v.c
the different stages and sub-stages of eoucanou houlo _b ^
, , ^ t nf TnitiT in consultation vitn vj
by the Government oi inaia in
ments.
The proposed nomenclature of Education L c. loilo
16 Kothari Commission
Existing Nomenclature
Proposed Nomenclature
1. School Education'.
I. School Education ;
A. (i) Pre-primary.
(ii) Pre-basic.
(iii) Kindergarden.
(iv) Montessori, etc.
A, Pre-Primary
B. (i) Primary (in Punjab).
B. faj Lower Primary Clas-
ses I-IV or I-V
(ii) Lower-primary (in
[b] Higher primary Clas-
some states e.g.
Gujrat.)
(iii) Junior Basic
(iv) Lower Elementary (in
some states, e.g.
Madras).
ses V-VII or VI-VIL
C. (i) Middle (in some
C. Secondary Education
states e.g. Punjab)
Classes VIII-XIL or
(ii) Junior High Schools
[a] Lower Secondary
(in U. P.)
Education
(iii) Upper Primary (in
VIII-IX or IX-X
Gujrat).
Classes
(iv) Senior Basic.
[b] Higher Seconda
(v) Higher Elementary
Education
(in Madras),
D. (i) High School.
(ii) Higher Secondary
School.
(iii) Intermediate College.
(iv) Pre-University,
Pre-professional,
Pre-medical,
Pre-engineering.
Classes XI-XII
2. Higher Education :
2. Higher Education :
(i) All degrees which
lead to a profes-
sional qualification
(e.g. M.A. ; M.Sc. ;
(M. Com,, B. E.,
[i] Professional degrees.
Educational System ; Structures and Standards 17
M. B. B. S.; B. T.;
L.L. B.; B. Sc. Ag.
etc).
(ii) All degrees other
[ii] General degrees.
than professional
ones.
(iii) All courses leading
[iii] Undergraduate.
to the first degree.
(iv) All courses beyond
[iv] Undergraduate.
the first degree (ex-
[v] Post-graduate.
eluding certain first
degrees given after
the first degree e.g.
B. Ed.)
3. General :
3. General :
(i) This will include
[i] First level of educa-
pre-school and pri-
tion.
mary education.
(ii) This will include
[ii] Second level of edU'
high school and
cation.
higher secondary
education.
(iii) This will include
[iii] Third level of educa-
under-graduate and
tion.
post-graduate edu-
cation and research.
2. THE EVALUATION
As Prem Kripal asserted — The value of a national pattern
of education is universally admitted and the nature and scope
of such a pattern are fairly clear to all those who are involved
in any way with the task of imparting education at all levels.^
We have realised that the present educational system is
faulty and there is no uniformity in it. In every state we find a
.system of its type. Sometimes a candidate feels difficulty in
seeking admission in another state. This commission, has there-
fore, proposed uniform nomenclature for educational planning
and reconstruction. Different views from various newspapers
regarding the new system proposed by Kothari commission are
1. Prem Kripal. Ibid p. 19.
1 8 Kothari Commission
given below —
1. The proposed system of one to three years of pre-scnooi
preparation, a 7-8 year primary stage, a lower seeondary stage of
2-3 years, higher secondary of 2 years, and higher education
beginning with a three years course, will no doubt be considered
more scientific than the present system, but unless the proposals
arc uniformly applied the existing confusion and imbalance as
between states, can not be removed.”^
2. “The commission has suggested a very practical inte-
grated system of consisting of twelve-year course of Higher
Secondary stage, followed by a three year course for first degree
and another two-year course for the final degree. This will be
topped by special course for higher studies for really deserving
and capable scholars.”®
3. According to Dr. D. S. Rcddi — ‘The Commission has
shown great wisdom in keeping the first degree at present 3 years.
While I consider that the two year higher secondary stage is the
most important and constructive recommendation, I am dis-
appointed that this most crucial stage should have been assigned
to the Secondary Schools rather than to an independent insti-
tution like a Junior College, The abolition of the one year Pre-
university course is the most urgently needed reform but its
replacement by the 2 year Higher Secondary Course which have
already 10 classes Even from the psychological point, it is wrong
to have a mixed age group from 6 to 1 6 in one institution, we
would all have welcomed a clear one fourth right recommendation
that this should be entrusted to, independent junior colleges or tc
existing undergraduate colleges than to a secondary schools.’’®
4. Dr. P. Parija says — ‘The schooling period was recom-
mended as 11 or 12 years with a primary stage of 4 or 6 years,
Who will decide whether the period should be 11 or 12 years;
Such indecision is prejudicial to uniformity. This is likely tc
create difficulty.”^
Having considired the views of the various scholars and
eminent educationists, we come to the conclusion that the Com-
mission has suggested the reorientation in educational planning.
We, however, need boldness to accept our weakness and have
for performing the new task whole heartedly.
h The Patriot— July 2. 1966.
2. Solidarity. July 7, 1966.
3. Dr. D. S. JJerf/— Daccan Chronicle. July 17. 1966.
4. Dr. P. Parija — Amrita Bazar Parika, July, 17, 1966,
; ^ Teacher Status
The teacher is considered the ■ poorest fellow of the society
because of his meager- remuneration and high work. The present
time witnesses the poor conditions of the teacher who.iis called
the builder of nation. . ■ - . ' ! . '
The Kothari Commission has laid great emphasis on
Teachers’ Status. A teacher who is illfed can never be • expected
to produce better results for the national development.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
The Kothari Commission hais recommended the following
points to improve the status of the Teachers.
(1) Remuneration : The Commission has recommended the
following grades to improve the status of the teachers. These
should be the sarne for all the teachers working in Government,
Local bodies and privately managed institutions. . ,
S.N. Teachers ProposediScale
1. (a) Teachers who have completed the ■
secondary course and have received 150-250
two years’ professional Training.
, (b) Selection grade (for about 15% of the cadre) 250-300
Note : ■ The -minimum salary of a primary teacher who has completed
the secondary course should be immediately raised to Rs. 100/- In a period
of 5 years it should be raised to Rs. 125/- Similarly the minimum pay of a
teacher, who has received two years’ of training should be raised immediately
to Rs. 125/- ; and it should be raised to Rs. 150/- in a period of five years.
Untrained persons with requisite academic qualifications should work on the
• ^ starting salary until they are trained and become eligible for the scale.
2. (a) Graduates who have received one 220-400
year’s professional training (Ser-
' vice period 20 years.)
(b) Selection grade (for about 15%
of the cadre.)
300-500
20 Kothari Commission
(c) Untrained graduate should re-
mainon their starting salary of
Rs. 200/- p.m. until they are
trained and become eligible for
the scale.
3. Teacher^s working in Secondary
Schools and having post-graduate
qualifications. (On being trained
they should get one additional
increment).
4. -Heads of the Secondary-Schools.
Depending upon size and jquality
of the school -and also on 4heir
qualifications, the headmasters
should have one or other of the
scale of pay for ‘ teabhers in affili-
•ated -colleges recommended
below.
5. Teachers of Affiliated Colleges
(i) Lecture—
(a) Junior Scale
(b) Senior Scale
(c) Senior' Lecture/Reader
(il) Principal—
(a) I Grade
(b) II Grade
(c) III Grade
6. Teachers in University .Department—
(i) Lecturer
(ii) Reader
(iii) Professor
-300.600
300-25-600
•400-30-640-40-800
700-40-1100
700-40-1100
.800-50-1.250
1000-50-1500
400-40-800-50-950
750-50-1250
,1100-50-1300-60-
.1600
One third of the professors , should ;be
in the Senior scale of
Note : 1. All srales of pay shourd be periodically revieweo anu revised
at least once in five years. house
2 . c<.mp«s,.ory cos. of - '‘•'SdMo.
3. The scales are to be given to all teachers
private service,
Teacher '.'Status
( 1 ) Implementation of Scales-'at'tha Uniyersify'iStage ; (I]
Assistance from the- centre should' b'e -provided 'to meet additional
expenditure on a sharing basis of 80% from Centre an(i<20% from
State funds. In the case of private colleges, central assistance md'j
even be provided on a J00% basisi (2) The introduction of these
scale of pay should be linked with improvement in the qualifica'
tions of teachers and improvement in the selection procedures foi
their appointment. (3) The. qualifications, of teachers in affiliated
college should be the same as those, fordeachers in the universities
The method of recruitment for them should also be similar.
(3) Implementation of Scale for School, Teachers. : (1) Thre(
main scales of pay should, be^ recognized for, school teacher
(i) for teachers who have completed the, secondary, school stagi
and are trained :.(ii) for. trained. graduates : and.(iii) for. teacher
with post-graduate qualifications.
(2) There, should, be no - teacher at the.primary stage.whi
has not completed the secondary, school course and ha
not had two.years of professional training.
(3) Headmasters- of higher primary, and lower- primar
schools with , enrolments, of more than 200, should :b
trained graduates. Their salaries - should be the sam
as those of traiiie-d, graduate teachers, imsecondar
schools.
(4) Seales of pay of secondary school teachers should fc
relateddo scales- of pay/ for teachersdn affiliated college
andiuniversities.-on the onefiand and -to those, of primar
teachers on the. other.
(5) i Scales of pay fbr headmasters^ of lower and highe
secondary schools should have a definite relationshi
with- those, of teachers'^ in- affiliated- colleges or eve
universities-
(6) ’ Teachers with first and second classtB A./B. Sc. or MA
M.' SC. or, with’ M. Ed. degree should be given advanc
increments in the scale.
(7) Professional training should- be obligatory for a
secondary school teachers.
(4) Promotional Prospects : (l) S'c/ioo/ Sfage — Qualified an
trained teachers in primary schools should be considered for pr(
motion as headmster.or inspecfor of schools.
(2) Trained graduate teachers in secondary schools who have
22 * Kothari Commissioil
done outstanding work-shouid'be eligible- for promotio.
to post carrying salaries of teachers with post-graduat
qualifications.
(3) The U.G.C. should give ad-hoc grants to oiitstandinj
teachers to do research into problems to encourage then
and incidently to qualify themselves for work at th(
universities.
(4) Advance increments of teachers doing outstanding worl
should be made possible.
(5) University Stage. Ad-hoc temporary posts in a higher
grade should be created for a Lecturer or Reader who
has done outstanding work and who cannot be given
promotion for the non-availability of a suitable post.
(6) In post-graduate departments, the post of the professor
should be on the basis of requirements.
(7) Special scales of Rs. 1600-1800 should be given to out-
standing persons.
(5) Relation Salaries to Cost of Living ; All teacher’s salaries
should be reviewed every five year and the dearness allowance
paid to teachers should be the same as that paid to government
servants with the same salary,
(6) Welfare Services : A genera! programme of welfare
services for ail school teachers should be organised in each state
and Union Territory, the funds being contributed by teachers
(at liX of tfie salaries) and an equal amount being given by the
State. The fund should be administered by Joint Committees of
representatives of teachers and the Government.
(7) Retirement Benefits : (1) The system of retirement
benefits to teachers should also be reorganised on the
principles of uniformity and parity. That is to say the
retirement benefits'^gb^n to employees of the Govern-
fment of India should be extended automatically to
^ teachess in the service of State Government in the first
instance and than to teachers working under local bodies
and private managements.
(2) Triple benefit scheme should be more widely adopted
for all the teachers.
(3) The normal retirement age for teaches in schools, colleges
and universities should be made 60 years with provision
for extension upto 65 years.
Teacher Statui 23
(4) A higher rate of interest should be given to teachers on
their provident fund.
(8) Conditions of Work and Service :
(1) Teachers should work at the highest level of efficiency.
(2) - Adequate facilities for professional advancement should
be provided to all teachers.
(3) A scheme should also be drawn up under which every
teacher will get a concessional railway pass to any part
of India once in five years on payment of a reasonable
contribution related to his salary.
(4) New conduct and discipline rules suitable for teaching
profession should be framed for teachers in Government
service.
(5) The terms and conditions of service of teachers in private
schools should be the same as for Government school,
(6) Private tutions should be discouraged and controlled.
Special coaching for children who need it should be
provided on an institutional basis.
(7) Teachers should be free to exercise all civic rights and
should be eligible for public offices at the local, district,
state or national level. No legal restriction should be
placed on their participation in election but when they
do so, they should be expected to proceed on leave.
(9) Women Teachers ; (I) The employment of women
teachers should be encouraged at all stages and in all
sectors of education. Opportunities for part-time employ-
ment should be provided for them on a large scale.
(2) Adequate provision should be made for their residential
accommodation particularly in rural areas.
(3) The Condensed and Correspondence Courses should be
operated for women education.
(4) Wherever necessary, special allowances should be given
to women teachers working in rural areas.
(10) Teachers’ Organisation : (1) Professional organisa-
tions of teachers which carry out work for the improvement of the
profession and of education should be recognized by the Central
and State Government and consulted on matters relating to school
education, general and professional education of teachers and their
salaries and conditions of work. (2) Joint teachers’ Councils
should be constituted in each State and Union Territory to discuss
24 Kotiiari Commission
all matters relating to teacher’s salaries, conditions of work and
welfare service. These should consist of representatives of Teachers’
Organisations and officers of the State Education Department.
Convention should be developed to the effect that the unanimous
recommendations of the council would be accepted by the Govern-
ment. In certain matters, there should be provision for arbitration
when negotiations fail.
(11) National Awards ; (1) Number of national awards should
be increased. (2) The selection committees should be strengthened.
(3) Travelling allowance given to the awardees should be similar
to that sanctioned for class I officers of the Government.
2. THE EVALUATION
The Education Commission has considered sympathetically
the improvement in the status of teachers. It recommends the
grades which are nearly equal to other sectors of the society.
Minimum pay for a trained primary school teacher is Rs. 150/—
exclusive of dearness and other allowances. The highest pay
which the Commission suggested for a Professor is I600-18C0.
The Commission also recommends that the salaries of teachers
working under various managements such as the Government,
local bodies and private management should be uniform.
The Centre should provide 80% of the additional expenditure
at the university stage to introduce these scales and the balance of
20% should be borne by the states. In the case of private colleges,
Central assistance should be 100%. The Commission holds the
opinion that the introduction of these scales of pay should be
linked up with improving the qualifications of teachers and their
selection procedures. No teacher at primary level should be
untrained. He should have two teachers’ Training.
On the basis of our experience, we know that the Government
always slashes the funds provided for education in the plans prob-
ably because of a prejudice against spending more money on
education. Education, has thus always suffered at the hands of
our planners and ministers.
The Kothari Commission placed its report in the hands of the
Government in the month of June 1966, recommending the imme-
diate application of uniform national pay scales for teachers which
were accepted in principle. It is a tragedy that the State Govern-
ments have not been able to realize the simple fact that teachers
with acute financial difficulties will not be able to carry on much
Teacher Status
longer and there is a great dcspcrlty of grades and other cnin.u-
raents given to the Govt, employees and to the teachers serving 'o
private sector. Dissatisfaction among tcaclicrs is motitUtng. Tne
disparity between the affiliated college teachers and the univer-
sity teachers is unwarranted, unjustified and against the spirit of
socialism and democracy.
Ministers and public leaders talk of improvcrncnl in the
quality of education and more social contact of teachers as a
solution to the recent, countrywide student unrest and disturb.inccs.
They are never tired of delivering sermons to the teachers tli.il
they should not resort to coercive and agitational activities to
force their legitimate claims but should always preserve the so-
called ethical values. May I be allowed to ask, is there any
method within the audible range of our present Government ?
The rising cost of living hits the teacher as hard as any State
employee. The Government, however, listens only to those who
can by their agitations, by courting arrests and similar other
pressure tactics paralyse its machinery. Funds for them arc always
arranged somehow or the other.
The question of salary scales for teachers is of primary impor-
tance. All talk of financial stringency is utter nonsense. Crorcs of
rupees are being wasted on unnecessary visits of Ministers for their
own benefit. Money seemed to be forthcoming for various other
minor schemes. Prem Kripal said, on the qualitative side, it was
recommended a reorganiraed almost uniform pattern of school and
college classes, an upgrading of the quality of teachers through
better remuneration, provision of satisfactory conditions of work
and service and improved facilities for general and professional
education aud upgrading of ten percent of educational institutions
at all stages to higher standards of quality,’^
Improvement is needed from both the sides. A survey is made
to study the efficiency of teachers. The project came to the conclu-
sions that— “Most teachers in secondary schools in India have
neither the proper background nor basis qualifications in the sub-
ject they teach.” This is revealed by a country-wide survey of
secondary teachers and their basic qualifications conducted by the
National Council of Education Research and Traininu under the
Education Ministry.
It is an open secret th at our resources are limited and our
1. Ibid. p. 17 ~ ~
26 Kotbari Commission
expenditures are more. The balance should be maintained in our
income and expenditure. But it does not mean that tie poor
teachers should suffer all the time. Till our resources improve, all
other types of expenses should be abolished. The recommenda-
tions of the Commission relating to the salaries, Mr. M.C. Chagla
described them as the Teachers’ Magna Carta. The Commission
has suggested reasonable scales of emoluments for teachers at all
levels. A sound educational system cannot be built with
perpetually unsatisfied teachers. They must get their minimum
economic remuneration and status. Good teaching should also
be supplemented by a streamlined administrative set up for
education.-
Dr. Kothari and others clearly say that the responsibility of
implementing the Report is primarily that of the Government-
Central and States. If they will not accept it, no one else will or
can.
1. National Solidarity— 7th July, 1966.
The Education Commission has made important recommen-
dations on Teacher Education. The Commission is of the opinion
that the standard of education depends on the quality of teachers.
Now-a-days one who does not get service anywhere comes in
teaching profession. It is immaterial whether he is trained or
not. Due to a lack of qualified persons, that standard of edu-
cation is deteriorating everyday.
A programme to train the teachers for Nursery, Primary
and Secondary level is needed. Several Commissions in the past
have suggested piece meal reform of teacher-education but the
present Commission has suggested a complete overhauling.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) Removing the Isolation of Teacher Training ; The profes-
sional preparation of teachers, being crucial for the qualitative
improvement of education in general should be treated as a key
area in educational planning and adequate financial and adminis-
trative provisions be made for it, at the State and Central level.
1. In order to make the professional preparation of effec-
tive, teachers teacher-education must be brought into
the main stream of the academic life of the Universities
on the one hand, and of school life and educational
development on the other.
2. To remove the existing isolation of teacher education
from University life — (i) education as distinguished
from pedagogy should be recognised as an independent
academic discipline and introduced as an elective subject
in the B. A., B. Sc., M. A., M. Sc. degree courses, fii)
School of Education should be established in selected
universities to develop programmes in teacher-education
and studies and research in education in collaboration
with other Univerity disciplines.
Kotjiari CommissiOil
3. To remove the existing isolation of iTeacher-education
from schools, (i) extension work should be regarded as
an essential function of a teachers training institution.
Extension Service Department should be established in
each institution’s pre-primary, primary and secondary
as an integrated part of it. (iij effective alumni associa-
tion should be established to bring old students and
faculty together to discuss and plan programmes and
curricula, (iii) practice-teaching for teachers under
training should be organised in active collaboration with
selected schools which should receive recognition from
the Education Department as co-operating schools and
get special grants for equipment and supervision, (iv)
periodic exchange of the staff of the co-operating schools
and of the teacher’s training institutions should be
arranged.
4. An intensive effort should be made to remove the exis-
tence separation among the institutions preparing
teachers for different stages of education or for special
fields such as craft or art or physical education by —
(i) implementing a phased programme of upgarding all
training institutions to be collegiate standard with ulti-
mate objective of bringing all teacher education under
the University, (ii) establishing comprehensive colleges
of education in each State on a planned basis, (iii) esta-
blishing a State Board of Teacher Education in each
State to be responsible for all functions related to teacher
education at all levels and in all - fields.
(2) Improving Professional Education — This can be done
hrough ; (1) Organisation of well-planned subject orientation
»r Content Courses in collaboration with university departments
sading to insight into basic concepts, objectives and implications
•f subjects to be taughts, (2) Introducing integrated courses of
[eneral and professional education in universties. (3) Vitalizing
•rofessional studies and basing them on Indian conditions through
he development of educational research. (4) Using improved
nethods of teaching which have greater scope for self-study and
iscussion and improved methods of evaluation which include
ontinuous internal assessment of practical and sessional work
s well as practice teaching. (5) Improving practice teaching and
aaking it a comprehensive programme of internship. (6) Develop-
Teacher Education 29
ing special courses and, programmes. .,(7) Revising the curricula
and programmes at all Jevels of teacher -education in the light of
the fundamental objectives of preparing teachers for their varied
responsibilities in an evolving system of education. (8) The
duration of the professional courses should be two years for
primary teachers who have completed the secondary course. It
should be one year for the graduate students, but the number of
working days in a year should be increased to 230. (9) The staff
of a secondary training college should have a double Master’s
degree in an academic subject and in Education. (10) Qualified
specialists in subjects like Psychology, Sociology, Science or
Mathematics may be appointed on the staff even if they have
not had professional training. (11) Summer institutes should be
organised for the inservice training of staff. (12) The staff, in
institutions for training primary teachers should hold a Master’s
degree either in education or in an academic subject as well as
B. Ed. and should have undergone special induction courses in
teacher education at the primary levels. (13) Special courses
should be organised for graduate entering primary teaching.
(14) All tuition fees in training institutions should be abolished
and liberal provision made for stipends and loans. Every training
institution should have an experimental school attached to it.
(15) Adequate hostel facilities for trainees and residential accomo-
dation for staff should be provided.
(3) Expansion of Training Facilities : The objective should
be to ensure that every teacher in a primary or secondary school
is either already trained at the time of his appoinment or receives
such training within three years of his appoinment. From this
point of view-(l) Each state should prepare a plan for the
expansion of training facilities in its area so that the output of
trained teachers meets the demand for teachers as well as the
needs for in service education. (2) Part-time facilities and corres-
pondence courses should be provided on a large scale and care
should be taken to see that the standards in full time institutions
are not diluted. (3) The backlog of untrained teachers should
be cleared at an early through measure of the types recommended
in the report. (4) The size of the institution should be located
on a planned basis.
(4) In-service Education of School Teachers— (1) A large
scale co ordinate programme of in-service education for teacher?
30 Kothari Commission
should be organised by universities, training institutions and
teachers’ Organisations for teachers at all levels. The targets
should be (bat every teacher will receive at least two or three
months inscrvice education in every five years of his service. (2)
The programme of summer Institutes for the inservice training
of secondary school teachers should be extended, with systematic
follow up and active collaboration among the agencies concerned.
(5) Professional Preparation of Teachers in Higher Education—
0) Some orientation to professional education is necessary for
junior lectures in higher education and suitable arrangements
should be made for the purpose. (2) Newly appointed lectures
should be given some time to acclimatize themselves to the insti-
tution and should be encouraged to attend lectures of good
teachers. (3) Regular orientation courses for new staff should
be organised in every university and where possible, in every
college. (4) In the bigger universities or groups of universitie
these courses may be placed on a permanent basis by establishinj
a staff college.
(6) Standard in Teacher Education — (1) At the national
level, the U.G.C. should take the responsibility for the main-
tenance of standards in teacher Education and should be res-
ponsible for the raising of standards at the state level. (2) A
substantial allocation of funds .should be made available to the
U.G.C. in the fourth plan for improvement in teacher-education
in the universities. (3) The UGC should set up a standing
committee for teacher education in collaboration with NCERT.
It should consist of competent persons from the, profession and
should be responsible for the maintenance of standards in edu-
cation. (4) The Government of India should make provision of
funds in the centrally sponsored sector to assist State Govern-
ments to develop teacher education which is now outside the
universities.
2. THE EVALUATION
“Most teachers in secondary schools in India have neither
the proper back-ground nor basic qualification in the subjects
they teach. This is revealed by a counrry-wide survey of
secondary teachers conducted by the National Council of Edu-
cational research and Training under the Education Ministry.
The survey, covering 30,000 teachers throughout the country has
Teacher Education 31
pointed to the staggening fact that proper redical measures are
urgently needed to raise the standard of education in high
schools.”^ This clearly shows the need of improvement in the
Teacher Education. .The Commission has suggested so many
things to develop Teacher Education.
India is in a tight position following devaluation. We shall
be glad if we are able to carry on with the funds alloted for edu-
cation in the plans.
Recommendations of the Commission which envisaged im-
provements without much expenditure should be implemented
forthwith. Teachers welcomed the recommendations with reser-
vations. They are happy that they have been promised better
grades, but they are not sure if the Government will spend more
on education.
“The gleanings of Kothari Commission have been published.
They constitute the main points of the report with a few direct
implications of them as far as we can interpret. Mr. Chagla
has characterised this report as the Manga Carta for the teachers
XXX But if we look closely we find that the report has indulged
into certain patch-work reforms and also has indulged into
certain ambitious wishes which may turn-out to be variable
platitudes.’’®
The fact is that the Commission has ignored the basic fact;
the resources. From where the money will come ? Dr. S. B.
Adaval says... “The Commission has not been able to hide its
feelings of nervousness about the stupciuious task entrusted to it,
and seems over conscious of limitnlions, particularly financial,
under which it has tried to plan and present its recommendations.
This naturally, comes in the way of Ihe e.xiiberant forward looking
approach of a normally confidant group of educational thinkers
and planners. The vigour, the dynamism and the powerful
optimism of a nation on march is definitely not reflected in the
Report.”®
It is true that Commission thought over the problem of
Teacher Education sincerely. Dr. Adaval says— “It is gratifying
to note that Commission has given some recognition to the impor-'
1. Hindustan Times— dated April 11, 1966.
2. Education, Vol, XVI August 1966, Page 2,
3. Adavavl S. B, NIE .Tournal, ‘The Education Commission and Teacher
Education,’ Vol, I No, 2 Page 60,
32 Kothari Commission
tance of teacher education in the wider context of qualitative im*
provement of education in' the country. X x X The whole chapter
is a bundle of recommendations, some important — some causal
and some fulfil.
According to the Commission, teachers’ education should be
improved. But how ? Dr. Adaval throws some light on it, “Re-
commendations on teacher education have been made in order to
(i) improve and increase training facilities (ii) improve quality of
training institutions and of teachers education programmes, (iii)
set up organizational agencies to maintain a standard in teacher
education.”® •
Pointing the problem of non-coordination of Teachers’
Education, he writes — “Teachers’ education has for several years
viewed with concern the fact that the training of teachers of
Elementary, Secondary and Nursery schools is carried on in
separate, highly isolated institutions and there are no points of
contact and mutual give-and-take even between two institutions
conducting similar programmes and existing side by side.”*
“The Commission has proposed it to be done in two ways
one by starting new institutions on a planned basis and secondly
to raise the size of existing institutions by increasing their intake.’^
Ij is an irony that Indians have to be told by the Commission
that their education should be Indianized.®
In most of the cases Commission tried to please every body
and every sector of the society. With the result that nothing is
escaped from the eyes of the Commission. Most of the recom-
mendations are the same as recommended by previous Commis-
sions. Adaval expresses, “In many matters regarding teacher
education, the Commission has followed the beaten track without
being sufficiently bold and imaginative. It worked like an office
drawing up a long list of recommendations. There are many
loop-holes in teacher education and the Commission has set about
plugging each one of them. And in this effort it has lost a great
opportunity to lead and inspire.”®
4. Ibid! — —
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid-Page 63.
7. Ibid-Page 61,
8. Ibid-Page 63,
9 . Ibid-Page 66,
Teacher Education 33
The Commission’s report has met different reactions. There
are persons who welcome the report like anything because it suits
their interests, but there are some others, who have realistic
approach and ponder-over aspect of the problem. This is the
main characteristic of this report. One can take it in whatsoever
way he likes, but many programmes suggested by the Commission
have much weight. Therefore, “In the field of education, all
societies have to reckon with the complex interactions of the
limitations of resources, requirements of the society, aspirations
of individuals and cultivation of excellence. Economics along
with other social sciences can help in formulating not only an
efficient policy from a narrow technical point of view but also in
evolving a more human and enlightened system.^® In my opinion,
to remove all types of problems regarding the teacher education;
to every teacher should be given a chance for higher study ; it
may be academic of professional. No demarcation of any type
be done in giving the facilities for the same”.
Regarding the Teacher’s status and Education J. P. Naik has
rightly said — ‘The commission has recornmended substantial
improvements in the remuneration of teachers, particularly at the
school stage. The gap in the remuneration of teacher at different
stages of education is proposed to be abridged. There-would be
parity and uniformity in re.spect of scales of pay, allowances and
retirement benefits between teachers working in all types of edu-
cational institutions, government, local authority or private. There
would be adequate opportunities for promotion and conditions of
work and service would be improved. If the recommendations
made by the Commission in this regard are implemented, there
would be an adequate feed back of the best persons coming out
from the educational system into teaching profession and this
would raise the standard exponentially.”^
10. Editorial— ‘Economic Issue in Education Policy’ in Educational
and Psychological Review’. Page 9. Vol. VII. No. 1. Jan. 1967.
11. /. P. Naik. Education in Fourth Plan. Page 119.
/
Enrolment and
We are facing to-day a tremendous problem — the unemploy-
ment. This unemployment is of two types— (i) a person who
has no work to do, (ii) a person who is misfit in a particular
job. The present Commission has discussed in this chapter these
aspects of the problem. We are of the opinion that the present
outlook of planning our needs according to our means must
prove fruitful to us. Our ultimate aim is national development. In
building the castle of nation everyone has to fix a brick. But
how ? Unless we make every person perfect in all respects
through the media of education, it will not be possible.
1. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) A National Enrolment Policy ; The following broad
objective should be followed to set up the national policy of
enrolment during next 20 years,
1 . Free and compulsory education for 7 years should be
provided as effective general education.
2. (i) To provide higher secondary and university edu-
cation to those who are willing and qualified to receive
such education, consistent with the demand for trained
manpower and need to maintain essential standards,
(ii) To provide adequate financial assistance to econo-
mically handicapped persons.
3. To emphasize the development of professional, technical
and vocational education and to prepare skill personnel
needed for the development of agriculture and industry.
4. To identify talent and to help it grow in its full poten-
tially.
5. To liquidate mass illiteracy and to provide an adequate
programme of adult and continuing education.
6. To strive continuously to equalize educational oppor-
tunities, beginning with the elimination of at least some
of the more glaring inequalities,
Enrolment and Man-Power 35
(2) Raising the Educational Level of the Average Citizen •'
Priority should be given to programmes of raising educational
level.
1. By providing 5 years of effective primary education by
1975-76 and seven years of such education by 1985-86
to all.
2. By making part-time education compulsory for one year
for all children in the age group of 11-14, who have not
complete the lower primary stage and are not attending
schools.
3. By developing programmes to liquidate adult illiteracy.
(3) Enrolment Policies in Secondary and Higher Education :
(1) Criteria of the enrolment in post-primary education should
be as mentioned, (i) Public demand for secondary and higher
education, (ii) Full development of the pool of natural ability,
(iii) Capacity of society to provide education facilities as required
levels of quality, (iv) Manpower requirements.
2. Seeing the increasing demands of secondary and higher
education, it is necessary to adopt a policy of selective
admissions to higher secondary and university education
in order to bridge the gap between the public demand
and available facilities.
3. Proper care of the education of gifted students (5 to 15
percent of all the students) should be made giving them
financial help in the form of scholarships.
4. Estimated requirements of man power needs or available
job opportunities from a good basis for planning the
expansion of educational facilities. This broad recom-
mendation has to be understood in the light of three
reservations. These considerations should be kept in
mind, (i) a continuous efforts should be made to im-
prove the collection of necessary data and the techni-
ques of man-power needs should be continuously revised
and kept upto date, (ii) the quality of man power needs
should be equally emphasized, (iii) the estimates of
manpower needs should not be regarded as the only
criterion— it should be suitably combined with other
criteria in taking final decisions about expansion of
educational facilities.
36 Kothari Commission
(4) Educational Implications of Estimates : The following
are the main policy implications of these estimate—
1. To restrict the unplanned an uncontrolled expansion of
general secondary and higher education of massive edu-
cated unemployment is to be avoided.
2. To make special and intensive efforts to vocationalize
secondary education and to develop professional educa-
tion at the university stage.
3. To devise suitable machinery, both at the national and
state levels.
(5) Machinery for Manpower Planning (1) At the national
level planning Commission which is responsible for
preparing estimates of manpower requirements in ail
sectors of national developments should set up a stand-
ing committee for manpower.
2. At the state level, standing committee for manpower
should be established on the lines of National Standing
Committee for Manpower.
3. At the national level institutions for training personnels
should be set up for the immediate supply of manpower.
4. The same work should be done by State Governments in
their territories.
5. Provisions for vocational education-both of school and
college, standard will have to be expanded in all areas on
a priority basis in keeping with manpower needs.
6. For enrolment in general education, the following may
be suggested, (i) In all areas where the level of expan-
sion reached is nearly equal to the national average
expected in 1986, a restrictive policy should be adopted
unless there are special reasons for the contrary, (ii)
Governments (Central and State) should suggest their
targets, (iii) The planning of higher education should be
done on a state basis. Each university should prepare
five year plans, (iv) District Level Authority should
plan all school education at district level.
(6) Education and Employment : Government should make
an offer of employment to every graduate. The system of one-
year internship now prescribed for medical graduate should be
^^ctended to other categories of graduates-
Enrolment and Man-Power 37
(7) A Wider Perspective : The basic problem of human
resource development can be solved only against a wider per-
spective. From this point of view, it is necessary to formulate and
implement integrated plans which will have three objectives.
(1) To reduce the birth rate by about half. (2) To bring
about an expansion of employment. (3) To provide such education
as will qualify young people for specific jobs.
Such integrated plans are needed at the national, state and
district levels.
2. THE EVALUATION
The Commission has given too much weight to check and
remove the unemployment from the country. Particularly it
has pointed out the role of the education existing to-day. The
education of the day is filthy and it serves the purposes other than
educational. It creates the 3R’S. i.e.; person who knows how to
read, write and calculate but it does not train him how to lead
life properly. Though we have high ideal yet we can not achieve
them.
If India is to achieve its target of economic growth, she must
have an adequate supply of educated specialists for each category
of job to be performed — we believe that the estimates of future
manpower needs form a useful basis for regulating patterns above
the primary level.
Discussing the mobilisation of the population for balancing
the manpower, the International Bureau of Education reported
“the shortage of teachers, particularly teachers with proper
training and qualifications give rise to more anxiety than ever and
is tending to become worse.
A dearth of competent and trained man-power is now felt in
nearly every branch of national life ; and is probably one of the
biggest bottlenecks to progress. Poor as we are financially the
poverty of trained intellect is still greater. We might do well to
remember White-Head’s warning ; ‘In the modern world the rule
is absolute — any race which does not value trained intelligence is
doomed.’^
The Commission is of the opinion that the new structure may
create any confusion at present but after implementing it, all will
1. UNESCO Courtier-September 1966. (Quoted from NIE Journal
November, 1966. Page 56)
2. Quoted from J.C. Agarwal’s book ‘Major Recommendations of the
Education Commission.’ Page 11.
38 Kothari Commission
be clear. ‘Leaving aside the generally painful jargon in which
teachers are listed among ‘essential inputs’ the recommendations
about the ‘new educational structure’ will have to be critically
considered. The suggestion that no specialisation should begin
before the first ten years of schooling seems to be based on sound
reasoning, but to transfer the specialised preuniversity course to
schools would be undesirable in existing and predictable condi-
tions. The Commission’s plan for the change are complicated and
confusing, but the net effect may be a return to the old system of
general school education for ten years, followed by two years of
partial specialisation in preparation for the first degree course.’^
The need of a general policy for utilising the manpower
maintaining proper enrolment is being felt in every sector of the
country. How many persons we need in a particular trade ?
And how many persons in other fields of life ? Thus we conclude
— ‘In every country, those responsible for education, those
concerned v/ith administration and teaching, inspectors, heads of
institutions — must set about rethinking the subject taught in an
international spirt. This is particularly neceessary in the case of
History, Geography, Language, History ofEducation and Teaching
Methods. This specialization will lead us to our goal. i. e. the
proper utilization of our manpower and this is based on our
present enrolment policy for the new generation which is ascending
to the gate-way of knowledge.
The problem movement and manpower is directly related with
the employment. AH the significant problems have been solved
through educational planning. Therefore Commission has rightly
stated — ‘to I'educe the birth rate to about half in a planned
programme of 10-15 years, to bring about avery rapid economic
development in such a manner that these would be job for every
youngman or woman who enters the labour force and to provide
such education to the young boys and girls as will qualify them,
by having a spectific job to do to participate effectively in the
national development programme.
1. Statesman, July 3, 1966.
7
Towards Equalization of
Educational Opportunities
In the history of the Commissions, it is for the first time that
this Commission has thought over the equalization of Educational
Opportunities without any consideration of race, caste and
community. The Commission has proposed (i) Free Education
(ii) Scholarships of various types to those who deserve (iii) Edu-
cation for women, handicapped and backward classes, and (iv)
Education for tribal persons. It seems that the Commission has
paid considerable attention to the equalization of educational
opportunities. If the recommendations will be implemented, we
hope that in the next twenty years, ail persons will be educated.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS.
(1) Fees in Education : The country should work towards a
stage when all education would be tuition free. From this point
of view: (I) Tuition fees at the primary stage should be abolished
in all Government, local authority and aided private schools
before the end of the 4th Plan. (2) Lower secondary education
should be tuition free in all the schools before the end of the fifth
Plan. (3) For the next ten years, the main efforts with regard
to fees in higher secondary and universities education should be
to extend the provision of tuition free education to all needy and
deserving students. As the first step, the proportion of free
studentships should be increased to 30% of the enrolment.
(2) Other Private Costs : (1) Free text books and writing
materials should be provided at the primary stages. Before the
start of the long vacations, a set of books should be given to
each student for further study. (2) A programme of book-bank
should be developed in secondary schools and institutions of
higher education. State Government and UGC should help this
programme. (3) The libraries of secondary schools and institution
of higher education should contain an adequate number of sets
of text-books so that the students can have any access to them.
(4) Grants for the purchase of books should be made to talented
students.
40 Kholhari Commission
(3) Scholarship : (]) The following programme of scholar-
ships is proposed al the different stages of education.
(i) Primary Stage Steps should be taken to ensure that
at the end of the lower primary stage no promising child
is prevented from continuing his studies further and to
this end, a scholarship of an adequate amount will have
to be provided to every child that may need it.
(ii) Secondary Stage — Steps should be taken to ensure that
the top 15% of the children in the age group do get
scholarship from higher primary to the secondary
stage.
(iii) University Stage— Scholarships should be available to at
least 15% of the enrolment at the undergraduate stage by
1976 and to 25% of such enrolment by 1986. Scholarships
should be available at least 25% of the enrolment at the
post graduate stage by 1970 and 50% of such enrolment
by 1986.
2. There should be two kinds of scholarships, (i) for those
who have to stay in hostels ; such scholarships should cover all the
direct and indirect costs of education, (ii) for those who can stay
at home and attend the school or college. These should mainly
cover direct and indirect costs.
3. The amount of scholarships should be regulated in such
a manner as to cover all costs.
(i) National Scholarships : (1) The scheme of national
scholarships should be expanded, This should be 10% by 1985-86.
(2) With a view to introducing a greater egalitarian element in
the award of these scholarships, it is suggested that the 50% of
these scholarships should be awarded, as at present on the state
basis. The remaining 50% should be awarded on the school
cluster basis.
(ii) University Scholarships : (1) To supplement the above,
a scheme of University scholarships should be instituted and
implemented through the UGC. The target to be reached is 1C%
at under-graduate and 20% at the postgraduate level by 1976.
(2) A standing committee on postgraduate and Research
Scholarships should be set up at the national level in the Ministry
of Education.
(iil) Scholarships for Vocational Education— (1) With regard
Towards Edualization of Educational Opportunities 41
to scholarships in vocational education, the admission examina-
tions to IITs should be held in English and also' in regional
language and the best students from each linguistic group should
be selected, if necessary, on the basis of quota related to popula-
tion. (2) At the school stage 30% and college stage 50% scholar-
ships should be given.
(iv) Scholarships for Study Abroad: There should be a national
programme for the award of scholarships to the best talented
students for study abroad. About 50% scholarships should be
awarded every year.
(v) Loan Scholarships — It is necessary to institute a pro-
gramme of loan scholarships to supplement the outright grant
scholarships. (2) If a person who holds a loan scholarships joins
the teaching profession, one tenth of the loan should be written
off for each year service. This will encourage good students to
join teaching profession. (3) For convenient administration of
the loan scholarships programme, a National Scholarship Board
may be set up.
(4) Others forms of Student Aid: (1) Transport facilities
should be provided imaginatively to reduce the cost on hostels
and scholarships. (2) Day Study Centres and lodging houses
should be provided on a liberal scale. (3) Facilities for students
to earn and pay a part of their educational expenses should be
developed. (4) In all programmes of scholarships, preferential
consideration should be given to the needs of girls.
(5) Handicapped Children— (1) A reasonable target will
however, be, to provide, by 1986, education for about 15% of the
blind, deaf and othopaedically handicapped children and to about
5% of the mentally retarded on ones. (2) There should be at
least one institution for the education of the handicapped children
in each district. (3) In the educationally advanced countries a
great deal of stress is now being laid on the integration of the
handicapped children into regular school programmes. (4) There
must be a Teachers Training programme for the education of
handicapped children.
(6) Regional Imbalance : There are wide differences in the
educational development in different states. A reduction of these
differences to the minimum is desirable. This can be done on
these lines : The district should be adopted as the basic unit for
educational planning and development. (2) At the State level,
42 Kofhari Commission
there should be a deliberate policy of equalization of educational
development in the different districts and the necessary adminis-
trative and financial measures to this end should be taken. (3)
At the national level, it should be regarded as the responsibility
of the Government of India to secure equalization of educational
development in the different states.
(7) Education for Women : (1) The education of women
should be regarded as a major programme in education for some
years to come and bold and determined efforts should be made to
face the difficulties involved and bridge the existing gap between
the education of men and women in as short a time as possible.
(2) Special schemes should be prepared for this purpose. (3)
There should be special machinery to look-after girls’ education
at the State and Central levels. (4) Teaching nursing and social
service are well recognised jobs where women can have useful role
to play.
In addition, several new avenues will have to be opened out
to them for earning their livelihood.
(8) Education of Backward Classes— (1) The existing pro-
gramme for the education of the scheduled castes should continue
and be expanded. (2) Greater efforts are needed to provide
educational facilities for the nomadic and semi-nomadic groups.
(3) Hostels should be provided for the children of the denotified
communities.
(9) Education of the Tribal People : The education of the
tribal people deserve great emphasis and attention.
1. At primary stage, the provisions of facilities will have to
be improved and Ashram schools will have to be establi-
shed in populated areas.
2. The medium of education for the first two years should
be tribal language and then the regional language.
3. At the secondary stage, provision of schools, hostel
facilities and scholarships programme will have to be
decentralised and made more efficient.
4. Provision for special tution will have to be made both at
secondary and university stages.
5. Non-official organizations working in the tribal areas
should be encouraged.
6. Special sub-cadre should be formed among the official
ranks with the object of selecting persons for work in
Towards Equalization of Educational Opportunities 43
tribal areas. The emoluments for these sub cadres should
be good enough to attract the best persons available.
7. Promising young persons from tribes should be selected
and specially trained to work in tribal areas. The usual
prescriptions regarding the recruitment or minimum
qualifications will often have to be set aside in this
programme.
2 THE EVALUATION
Article 15 of our constitution prohibits discrimination on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth and makes
special provision for the education of women and children. Simil-
arly article 45 of Directive Principles enunciate that the State
shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years from the
commencement of the constitution free and compulsory education
for all children until they complete the age of 14 years.
The Commission fails to define the meaning of equality in
education. Like liberty, equality of opportunity can only mean an
equal chance to complete within the frame-work of national goals
and the structure of rules, established in the society, The range of
oportunity will naturally differ according to the needs and stages
of the society. Lakshmi Menon says— “Unfortunately the
Commission, in my opinon, does not give adequate consideration
or thought to these factors. If it did, the Commission would be
compelled to make suggestions which would be realistic but utterly
unpopular.’’^
We can think over some main points which have not been
considered by the Commission in a systematic way or have been
completely left out.
1. Poor Country and Poverty : Our country is poor and the
percentage of poverty is high. In the age of competition a poor
person cann’t enjoy the opportunity meant for him. At present
primary education is free and secondary education collects the
fee. The Commission says— the proportion of free studentship
is comparatively small and fee collected per student is high, but
the report omits to mention what that equitable form is
2. Poor Base : Our educational policy is concentrating on
L Menon, Lakshmi— ‘The Education Commission and Equalisation of
Educational Opportunities’. NIE Journal, Vol. 1 No. 2 November
1966, Page 3.
2. Ibid, Page 4.
44 Kotliari Coramissiori
the top of heavy structure with a weak, very weak base. To have
equality of opportunity at the secondary stage, there must be
equality in primary as well as the pre-primary stages. The
Commission’s dreams of tutution free secondary and higher
education wilt take decades to fulfil, if at all it fulfilled. Hence in
equalities arising from poverty would not be remedied by a system
of scholarship and tiution-free education. So the question of
equalisation of educational opportunities is permanently bedevilled
by proverty.®
3. Education for Boys and Girls ; The problem of equalizing
the education for boys and girls cannot be separated from regional
imbalances like early marriage, a reluctance to understand changes
in a society and absence of concern for girls. Hence the nature
of education for girls and boys differs. The Commission should
have laid down different programmes for this.
4. Various Groups ; India is a country having great diver-
sities. Here are many groups. The Commission thought over
education the backward classes, tribes, nomadic and semi-nomadic
group etc : but nothing new is suggested by the Commission. It
has followed the existing way and techniques which are in practice.
5. We and Planned Society : We are making a planned
society. In a planned society every thing is based on planning.
“Whatever the quantum of skills and talents available society
can make use of only some, and at this stage of development of
our country where conservation and economy are needed, policies
of educational expansion should be closely watched and imple-
mentation carefully regulated.”*
The draft plan, while admitting that scholarships from an
important means of equalizing opportunities and encouraging
talents, says that the scholarships will be given largely as loans,
and it is expected that the scholarships and free concession will
rise to 57 crores by 1970-71. The amount of scholarships is in a
way immaterial unlesss it is properly disbursed to detect and train
talent were talent is suppressed by poverty.®
6. Need of a Progressive Educational Policy : To sum up
the discussion we can say that if the Commission wants to see the
implementation of its recommendations successfully, the need is
to form a progressive educational policy. Dr. V. N. Kothari
3. /i)/WPase4.
4. Idl'd Page 6.
5. Ibid Page 6.
Towards Equalization of Educational Opportunities 45
says — “Education system should be able to supply a sufficient
number of educated persons in different branches of knowledge
and technology so that economic development is not held back
for want of trained personnel. Thus education system can be
linked with the manpower and planning.”®
J. P. Naik (1968) has made certain observation on equali-
zation of educational opportunities — ‘The opportunities for free
education have been considerably expanded. Elementary edu-
cation is free or very largely free in all parts of the country, x X
The inequalities of development at the state and district levels
have been reduced to some extent and the educational gap bet-
ween urban and rural areas has been some what bridged. There
has been a large increase in the provision of facilities for the
education of handicapped children, and under privileged groups
like scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are now taking increas-
ingly to education. One important programme which has been
successfully implemented is to promote higher education among
these groups by providing a scholarship to almost every student
who completes the secondary school and desires to study further.’^
The basic purpose of the programme to provide equal oppor-
tunities has a great importance for crepting and promoting the
balanced leadership. Ashok Mehta says, — ‘When scarcity rules
a people the need for a clear focus, deeper understanding, collec-
tive discipline hard work and dedicated leadership becomes
inescapable.’®
6 Dr. Kothari. V. N— ‘Economic Issues in Education Policy’
Education and Psychology Review, Page 8. Vol VIII No. IJan. 1967,
7. Naik J. P. Education in the Fourth Plan. P. 89-90.
(5. Mehta Ashok. Quoted by J. P. Naik. Ibid. Page 114,
m
School Education :
Piroblem of Expansion
The problem of expansion of school education is increasing
with increase of population every year. Thus the need is felt to
open new schools at primary and secondary stage. At this stage
we have to face the problems of pre-primary, primary and secon-
dary education day by day. Day to day problems are the head-
ache to fhe educationists and the educational planners because
one problem is solved ane another comes to replace it. The com-
mission has recommended many new things to solve the problem
of educational expansion at the stage mentioned above.
I. THE recommendations
The entire pre-university period of education should be
treated as one single and continuous unit. It may be divided
into sub standards or sub-units as the similarities between the
problems of the different sub-stages are more significant than the
differences.
(1) Pre-primary Education : Pre-primary education should
be on the following lines during the next twenty year ;
1. State level development centres for pre-primary education
should be set up in each State Institute of Education ;
in addition a district level centre should be set up in
each district for the development, supervision and gui-
dance of pre-education in the area.
2. Private enterprise should be made largely responsible
for setting up in running pre-primary centres, the State
should assist with grant-in-aid on the basis of equali-
zation.
3. Experimentation in pre-primary education should be
encouraged especially to devise less costly method is
expanding it.
4. The State should maintain State and District level play
centres, train pre-primary teachers, look after research
^nd pre-primary of literature on preparation education,
School Education ; Problem of Expansion 47
supervise and guide pre-primary schools and training
institution, assist private agencies with grant-in-aid and
run model pre-primary schools.
5. The programme of pre-primary schools should be flexible
and consist of various types of play, mannual and lear-
ning activities accompanied by sensorial education.
(l) Expansion of Primary Education : The objective of pri-
mary education should be to prepare individuals to be respon-
sible and useful citizens.
1. Five years of good and effective education should be
provided to all children by 1975-76.
2. Seven years of such education should be provided by
1985-86.
3. Emphasis should be laid on the reduction of wastage
and stagnation.
4. Children who are not yet fourteen years old at the end
class VII and who do not wish to study further should
be retained in the educational system till they complete
14 years of age. They should be provided with short
vocational courses of their choice.
5. Each State and district should be required to primary
a perspective plan for the development of primary edu-
cation in its area in the light of the targets stated above
and its local conditions.
(3) Universal Provision of School : The expansion of pri-
mary schools should be so planned that a lower primary school
is available within a distance of about a mile from the home of
every child. A higher primary school should be available within
one to three miles from the home of every child,
(4) Universal Enrolment : (1) The present hetrogeneity of
cohrent in class I should be reduced and bulk of the students in
this class should consist of children in the age group 5-6 or 6-7.
A system of pre-registration should be introduced. (2) The
transfer rate of students from the end of the lower primary stage
to the higher primary stage should be raised to 100% by the end
of the fifth Plan.
(5) Universality of Retention : (1) Stagnation and wastage
are very high in class I and their reduction should be a major
programme. These measures should be adopted, (i) Treating
glasses I and II (where possible classes I to IV) as one integrated
48 Kothari Commission
unit, (ii) Introducing a year of pre-school education, (iii) Adop-
ting play-way techniques in class I. (2) Stagnation and wastage
in other classes should be reduced by providing various forms of
part-time education, by implementing a nation wide programme
of school improvement and by an intensive programme of paren-
tal education. (2) All children in the age group 11-14 not atten-
ding schools and who have not completed the primary stage of
education and become functionally literate should be required to
attend literacy classes for a period at least one year. The classes
should be organised in primary schools and on a flexible manner
to suit the convenience of the pupils. They should begin on a
voluntary basis but compulsion may be tried when the local
community has become familiar with the concept. (4) Similar
facilities for part-time education should be provided for children
who have completed the lower primary stage and have a desire to
study further.
(6) Education of Girls : Primary Stage : The education of
girls requires special attention in fulfilling the constitutional direc-
tive and should be accelerated on the lines recommended by the
National Committee on Women Education.
(7) Education of Girls : Secondary Stage : (1) Efforts
should be made to accelerate the expansion of girls education so
that the proportion of girls to boys reaches 1 : 2 at the lower
secondary stage and 1 : 3 at the secondary stage in 20 years.
(2) Emphasis should be placed on establishing separate schools
for girls, provision of hostels and scholarships and part time and
vocational courses.
(S) Expansion of Secondary Education : (1) Enrolment in
secondary education should be regulated during the next 20 years
by — (i) proper planning of the location of secondary schools,
(ii) maintaining adequate standards, by determining enrolment in
terms of facilities available. (2) A development plan for secon-
dary education should be prepared for each district and imple-
mented in a period of ten years. (3) The best students should be
selected for admission into secondary schools through a process
of self-selection at the lower secondary stage, and on the basis of
external examination results and school records at higher secon-
dary stage.
(9) Vocationalizing Secondary Education : (1) Secondary
education should be vocationalized in a large measure and enrol-
ments in vocation courses raised to 20% of the total enrolment at
School Education : Problem of Expansion 49
V
the lower secondary stage and 50% of total enrolment at the
higher secondary stage by 1986. (2) A variety of part-time and
full-time facilities in vocational education should be available at
both levels to meet the needs of boys and girls in urban and rural
areas. (3) The Central Government should provide special grants
to State Governments in the centrally sponsored sector for the
vocationalization of secondary education.
(10) Part-time Education : Facilities for part-time edu-
cation should be provide oh a large scale at lower and higher
secondary stage in general and vocational courses. XXX Special
emphasis will have to be placed on agricultural courses for those
who have taken farming as a vocation and on courses in Home-
science or Household industries for girls.
(11) Planning and Location of Schools: (1) A national
policy for the location of new institutions of each category should
be adopted so as to avoid waste and duplication. The second
educational survey should be used for the careful planning of the
location of educational institutions. (2) Public opinion should be
educated to accept mixed schools at the primary stage and the
sharing of bigger and efficient schools in common. Villages
should be grouped so as to make the economic provision of
primary schools possible. (3) At the secondary stage, the estab-
lishment of small and uneconomic institutions should be avoided
and existing uneconomic schools should be consolidated
(4) Vocational schools should be located near the concerned
industries.
2. THE EVALUATION
Education Commission suggests an integrated approach to
school education to solve the problem of expansion. The Com-
mission accepts the whole process of formal education into two
ways — Pre-university and Higher education. From pre-primary
to preuniversity stage, it suggests the various means and methods
to meet the problem. The main recommendation for it, is that
the provision of school within easy distance from the home of
every child. Part time and own time educational opportunities
are recommended for those who gives up education in the way.
District Educational Plans based on educational survey will be
proved boon to face the challenge of expansion.
The Education Commission recommends a two-phased pro-
gramme to provide free and compulsory education to children
50 Kothari Commission
upto the age of 14 by 1985-86 as directed by the constitution,
(i) The first phase should consist of five years of good and effec-
tive education to all children by 1975-76. (ii)The second phase
should also consist of seven years ef good and effective education
to all chidren by 1985-86.
(1) Avoidance of Wastage : The Commission is of the
opinion that wastage and stagnation should be reduced so that
not less than 80% of children who enter class I, reached class VII.
(2) The Location : It is good that the Commission has
thought over the problem of location of schools. Lack of equal
distribution of schools is found everywhere. Considering it, the
Commission has made provision for this. The location of primary
school should be so planned that a lower primary school be within
a mile and a higher primary school within three miles from the
home of the student.
(3) The Girl’s Education : The education of girls at pri-
mary stage requires special attention and should be accelerated by
measures recommended by the National Committee on Women’s
Education.
(4) The Enrolment : The Commission calls for a regulation
of enrolment in secondary schools during the next 20 years thro-
ugh planning the location of secondary schools, maintaining ade-
quate standards and selecting the best stdents. A development
plan for secodary education should be drawn up for each district
and must be implemented in ten years.
(5) Vocationalization : We feel the need of vocational
training during the educational period. The commission has
recommended that secondary education should be vocationalized
on a large scale and enrolments in vocational courses raised to
20% on the total enrolment at the lower secondary stage and
5( % of the total enrolment and the higher secondary stage.
Emphasis should be laid on establishing separate school for girls,
provision of hostels and scholarships, part-time and voctional
courses.
(6) A National Policy : A national policy for the location
of new schools should be adopted to avoid wastage and duplica-
tion. At the secondary stage, the establishment of small and
uneconomic institutions should be avoided and existing unecono-
mic schools should be consolidated.
School Curriculum
Education is regarded as a life long and tri-polar process
based on teacher, taught and curriculum. Our Commission
has not neglected the third pole. We can rather say that special
emphasis has been laid on this third pole of education. The
Commission wants that a unified approach should be taken to the
framing of the entire school curriculum, a new definition of the
Content of general education and a new. approach to the place of
specialisation.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
The following are the recommendations of the Commissions.
(1) Essentials of Curricular Improvement : (I) School curricula
should be upgraded through research in curriculum development
undertaken by University Departments of Education,- Training
Colleges, State Institutes of Education and Board of School Edu-
cation. (i) Periodical revision based on such research, (ii) The
preparation of text books and teaching learning materials,
(iii) The orientation of teachers to the revised curricula through
in service education.
2. Schools should be given the freedom to devise and
experiment with new curricula suited to their needs. A
lead should be given in the matter by training colleges
and universities through their experimental schools.
3. Ordinary and advance curricula should be prepared by
State Board of Education in all subjects and introduced
in a phased manner in schools which fulfil certain
conditions of staff and facilities.
4. The formation of Subject Teacher’s Associations in
different school-subjects will help to stimulate experi-
mental and in the upgrading of curricula. SIE^ and
NCERT^ should help them in co-ordination.
1. State Institute of Education.
2. National Council of Educational Research and Training.
52 Kothari Commission
(2) Organisation of the Curricuia : (I) In non-vocational
schools, a common curriculum of general education should be
provided for the first ten years of school education and diversifi-
cation of studies and specialisation should begin only at the
higher secondary stage.
2. Standards of attainment should be clearly defined at the
end of each sub-stage.
3. At the lower primary stage, the curriculum should be
simple with reduced load of formal subjects and emphasis
on language, elementary mathematics and environmental
studies.
4. At the higher primary stage, the curriculum will broaden
and deepen, teaching methods, will become more syste-
matic and standards of attainment more specific.
5. At the lower secondary stage study of subjects will gain
in rigour and depth.
6. At the higher secondary stage, courses will be diversified
in such a manner as to enable pupils to study of any
three subjects in depth with considerable freedom and
elasticity in grouping of subjects.
7. At the higher primary stage, enrichment programmes
should be provided for the talented children. It may
take the form of additional subject or greater depth in
the same subject.
8. At the secondary stage, courses should be provided at
two levels ordinary and advanced, in beginning with
class VII,
(3) Study of Languages : The study of language at the
school stage needs revival and a new policy requires to be
formulated.
1. The modification of the language formula should be
guided by the following important principles : (i) Hindi as the
official language of the Union enjoys an importance next only fo
that of the mother tongue, (ii) A working knowledge of English
will continue to be an asset to students, (iii) The proficiency
gained in a language depends as much upon the teachers and
facilities as upon the length of time in which it is learned, fiv) The
most suitable stage for learning three languages is the lower
secondary. (Classes VIH-X). (v) The introduction of two additional
School Curriculum 53
languages should be staggered, (vi) Hindi or English should be
introduced at a point when there is greatest motivation and need,
(vii) At no stage should the learning of four languages be made
compulsory. 2 The three language formula modified on these
principles should include, (i) The mother-tongue or the regional
language, (ii) The official language or the associate official langu-
age of the Union so long as it exist, (iii) A modern Indian or'
European language not covered under (i) and (ii) and other than
used as the medium of education.
3. At the lower primary stage the pupil will ordinarily
study only one language the mother-tongue or the
regional language At the higher primary stage, he will
study two languages, the mother tongue (or the regional
language) and the official language of the Union (or
the associate language). At the lower secondary stage,
he will study three languages, the mother-tongue (or the
regional language); the official or associate official
languages and modern Indian language, it being obli-
gatory to study the official or the associate official
language which he had not studied at the higher primary
stage. At the higher secondary stage, only two languages
will be compulsory.
4. The study of important modern library languages other
than Euglish should be made possible in lieu of English
in each State with option to study them in lieu of English
or Hindi. Similarly, in non-Hindi areas, the study of
modern Indian languages should be made possible in
selected schools with a similar option to study them in
lieu of English or Hindi.
5. The study of English and Hindi will be indicated in
terms of hours of study and level of attainment. Two
levels of attainment should be prescribed in the official
and associate official languages— one for a three year and
one for a six years study.
6. The study of a language should not be compulsory in
higher education..
7. A nation-wide programme should be organised for the
promotion of the study of Hindi on a voluntary basis
but the study of the language should not be forced on
unwilling sections of people.
54 Kothari Commission
8. The burden of studying languages is made heavier
because of great differences in script. Some literature in
every Modern Indian Languages should be produced in
Devnagari and Roman scripts. All modern Indian
languages should also adopt the international numerals.
9. The teaching of English should not begin ordinarily
earlier than class V, till adequate command has been
acquired over mother-tongue. The introduction of the
study of English earlier than- class V is educationally
unsound.
10. The study of classical Indian languages such as Sanskrit
or Arabic should be encouraged on an optional basis
from class VII and should be positively emphasized in
all universities. Advance centres may be set up in
selected universities in these languages. No new Sanskrit
University should be established.
(4) Science and Mathematics Education : Science and Mathe-
matics should be taught on a compulsory basis to all pupils as a
part of general education during the first ten years of schooling.
(i) The Study of Science (1) In the lower primary stage science
teaching should be related to child’s environment. (2) At the
primary stage emphasis should be laid on the acquisition of
knowledge and the ability to think logically, to draw conclusions
and to make decisions at a higher level. (3) A science corner in
lower primary schools and a laboratory-cum-lecture room in
higher primary schools are minimum essential requirements, (4)
At the lower secondary stage science should be developed as a
discipline of the mind. (5) Science courses at an advanced level
may be provided for talented students in selected lower secondary
schools with necessary facilities of staff and laboratory. (6)
Science teaching should be linked to agriculture in rural areas
and technology in urban areas.
(ii) The Study of Mathematics (1) Special attention should
be given to the study of mathematics in view of the importance of
qualification and the advent of automation and cybernetics. (2)
Curriculum in mathematics needs to be modernized and made
up-to date at all stages with emphasis on laws and principles of
mathematics and logical thinking.
(iii) Methods of Teaching Science and Mathematics. Methods
of teaching Science and Mathematics should be modernized,
School Curriculum 55
stressing the investigatory approach and the understanding of
basic principles.
(5) Social Studies and Social Science (1) An effective
programme of social studies is essential for the development of
good citizenship and emotional integration. (2) The syllabus
should stress the ideas of national unity of man. (3) The scientific
spirit and social science should permeate teaching of social
studies.
(6) Work Experience (1) Work experience should be
forward looking in keeping with the character of the new social
order. It will take the form of simple hand-work in the lower
primary classes and of craft in the upper-primary classes. At
the lower secondary stage, it will be in the form of workshop
training, and at the higher secondary stage, work experience will
be provided in the school workshop, farm or commercial and
industrial establishment. (2) Where school workshops can not
be provided, suitable kits of tools and materials should be made
available at lower cost. (3) The training of teachers, provision of
workshops, mobilisation of local resources, preparation of litera-
ture and the phased introduction of the programme are essential
to the success of the scheme.
(7) Social Service (1) Programmes of social service and
participation in community development should be organised at
all levels as studied to the different age-groups in a phased
manner. (2) Labour and social service camps should be run
through out year and for this purpose a special organisation set-up
in each district. The camps will facilitate the organisation of
social service programmes in schools.
(8) Physical Education. Physical education is important
for the physical fitness and efficiency, mental alertness and the
development of certain qualities of character.
(9) Education in Moral and Spiritual Values (1) Deliberate
attempt should be made for imparting moral education and
including spiritual values in schools through direct and indirect
methods with the help of the ethical teaching of great religions.
(2) One or two periods a week should be set aside in the school
time-table for instruction in moral and spiritual values. The
treatment of the subject should be comprehensive and not divorced
from the rest of the curriculum.
56 Kolhari Commission
(10) Creative Activities (1) The Government of India should
appoint a committee of experts to survey the present situation of
art education and explore all possibilities for its extension and
systematic development, (2) Bal-Bhawans should be set up in all
parts of the country with substantial support from the local
community. (3) Art departments should be set up in selected
university centres to carryout research in art-education. (4) A
variety of co-curricular activities should be organised to provide
pupils opportunity for creative self-expression.
(11) Differentiation of Curricula for Boys and Girls
The recommendations of the Hansa Mehta committee that
there should be no differentiation of curricula on the basis of sex
is endorsed. Home Science should be provided as an optional
subject but not made compulsory for girls. Larger provision
should be made for music and fine arts; and the study of mathe-
matics and science should be encouraged.
(12) The New Curriculum and Basic Education
The essential principles of basic education, namely, pro-
ductive activity, correlation of curriculum with productive activity
and the environment and contact with local community, are so
important that they should guide and shape the educational
system at all levels, this is the essence of the proposals made in
the report. No single stage of education need be designated as
basic education.
2. THE EVALUATION
The Commission has stated, ‘The explosion of knowledge in
recent years and the reformation of many concepts in the science
have highlighted the inadequacy of existing school programmes
and brought about a mounting pressure for radical reform of
school curriculum, A unified approach should be taken to the
framing of the entire school curriculum, a new definition of
content of general education and new approach to the place of
specialisation.’
The commission has suggested the entire overhauling of the
curriculum. It has laid emphasis on science education and on pro-
ductivity through work-experience. Dr. D. S. Kothari says— “For
a hungry man or a hungry woman, truth has little meaning. He
wants food. And India is a hungry starving country, and to talk of
Truth and God, and even of many of the fine things of life, to the
million who are starving, is a mockery, x X x So, science must
School Curriculum 5l
think in terms of the few hundred million persons In India.
Obviously, you can only think in those terms and work along
those lines on the wider scale of co-ordinated planning.”^
We can conclude the whole suggestions like this.
n) Upgrading the curriculum, introducing advanced and
enrichment-programmes and opportunities for more free-
dom and experimentation.
(2) Reorganisation of curriculum.
(3) An orientation towards Science throughout the period of
general education and a new approach to social studies.
(4) A modihcafion of the three language formula.
(5) Introduction of work-experience and social service on a
compulsory basis for all students at all levels.
(6) Instruction in moral and spiritual values as a regular
• part of the curriculum.
“In view of the general standard of education in our schools
the poor quality text books, the illequipped and under-paid
teachers, the lack of physical resources, this programme of quali-
tative improvement required Herculean efforts for implementa-
tion.*'® Ranjini Kumar throws the light on the unsuccessful curri-
culum and teaching.
Work-experience is a new programme based on the producti
vity principle of Basic education. Work-experience has been intro-
duced by the Commission to the life of the school. It is to be
enforced on a compulsory basis at all levels so as to link education
with productivity and create in the students the right attitudes to
labour and indentification with the life around.
The main controversy is on language issue as recommended
by the Commission. The Commission is in favour of English and
holds that it will be necessary to adopt English as the normal
medium of education in the major universities in order to main-
tain their all Indian Character. The fact is that the school curri-
culum is in a state of flux all over the world today. The causes
of this are— (i) tremendous explosion of the knowledge, (ii) relink-
ing of school education, (iii) inclusion of significant items in
1 jcothari, D. 5 .— ‘Education, Science and the Community.’ Naya
Shikshak.Vol. VII No. 3 ; Jan- 1966, Page 5-6.
2. Rajini Kumar, Symposium, NIE Jourral Vol. I. No. 2 Nov. 1966
page 9.
58 Kolhari Commissidn
already overpacked programme; (iv) lack of dynamic and stimu-
lating methods. All these factors are responsible for the reform
of school curriculum. The following comments are given here
about school curriculum.
1. Teaching of English from School Stage : While stressing
that the mother-tongue and the regional languages should be the
medium of instruction in schools and higher institutions, the Edu-
cation Commission advocates the study of English right from the
school stage. In its report, the Commission says it would be
desirable to establish a few institutions, both at the school and
university level, with some important world language as their
teaching medium. English should, however, continue to serve as
the link language in higher education for academic work and
intellectual dialogue. But it adds, “It is, however, equally obvious
that English can not he the hnk language for the majority of our
people. It is only Hindi which can and should take this place in
due course. As it is the official language of the Union and the
link language of the people all measures should be adopted to
spread it in the non-Hindi areas.” •
2. Multiple channels ; “In addition to Hindi, multiple chan-
nels of inter-State communication in all the modern Indian langu-
age should be provided.” The Commission feels that the mother
tongue has a pre-eminent claim as the medium of instruction at
the school and college stage. Regional languages should be adopt-
ed at the higher stage. The University grants Commission and
the universities should work out a programme for the adoption
of these recommendations suited to each university or a group of
universities. “The change over should be completed within 10
years”, the report says. “Energetic action is needed to produce
books and literature, particularly scientific and technical, in the
regional languages. This should be made the responsibility of
universities assisted by the University Grants Commission.”
The Commission recommends that all Indian institutions
should continue to use English as the medium of instruction. The
eventual adoption of Hindi should however, be considered in due
course, subject to certain safeguards.
3. Regional Languages : The Commission recommends that
the regional languages should be made the languages of adminis-
tration in the regions concerned as early as possible so that the
higher services are not barred to those who study in the regional
School Curriculum 59
medium. It feels that in every linguistic region there should be a
number of people knowing other modern Indian languages, fami-
liar with their literature and able to contribute them. For this pur-
pose there should be adequate arrangements in schools and
colleges to teach different modern Indian languages. Steps should
be taken to establish strong departments in some of the modern
Indian languages at every university. At the B. A. and M. A.
levels should be possible to combine two modern Indian languages.
4. Third Language is Unnecessary : Mr. V. R. Nedunche-
zhian, Education Minister of Madras, said at Maduri ,on 15th
March, ’67 that so far as Madras State was concerned, two langu-
ages,' Tamil, the mother tongue, and English — would suffice to
meet the requirements of the State in the sphere of education and
administration. He did not feel the necessity for a third language.
But the Government would provide opportunities for any student
who wanted to learn any additional language. The learning of
additional languages would be optional. Tamilian to converse
with a non-Tamilian and to have contact with the outside world,
the knowledge of English was absolutely essential. So English
must retained. English was also necessary for the pursuit of
higher studies in such professions as Medicine, Engineering and
Lcience. A student at the time of leaving the college should have
the capacity to speak as fluently in English as in Tamil. Students
should understand pure politics, but should not get themselves
involved in party politics. Their interests in politics should be
such as not to hinder their education.
5. Why Radical Reform in School Curriculum ? 'The explosion
of knowledge in recent years and the reshaping of many scientiflc
concepts have high lighted the inadequacy of the existing School
Science programmes and brought about “mounting pressure” for
a radical reform of the curriculum’, says the Education Commis-
sion in its report.
It says that a "unifled approach” should be taken to the
entire school curriculum, with a new definition of the content of
general education and a new attitude to specialization.
School curriculum should be upgraded through research in
curriculum development by university departments of education,
training colleges, State Institutes of Education and Boards of
Schools Education, revision of curriculum based on such research,
the preparation text books and learning materials and the orien-
60 Kotliari Commission
tation of teachers to the revised curriculum through “in service’^
education. Schools should be free to devise and experiment with
new curriculum suited to their needs. Training colleges and
universities should give a lead through their experimental schools.
State Boards of School Education should prepare advanced
curriculum in all subjects and introduce them in a phased
manner in schools which fulfil certain staff condition and provide
facilities.^
‘In general or non-vocational schools a common curriculum of
general education should be provided for the first JO years and
diversification of studies and specialization should begin only
at the higher secondary stage. Standards of attainment should
be clearly defined at the end of each sub-stage’, the Commission
says. Language study at the school stage needs revival and
“a new policy regarding language study at this stage required to
be formulated, particularly in view of the fact, that English has
been recognised as an associate official language for an indefinite
period,”
6. Guiding Principles : Modification of the language formula
should be guided by the following principles —
1. Hindi as the official language of the Union enjoys an
importance next only to that of the mother tongue.
2. A working knowledge of English will continue to be an
asset to the student.
3. Proficiency in language depends as much on the types of
teachers and facilities as on the length of time in which it
is learned.
4. The most suitable stage for learning three languages is
the lower secondary (classes VIII-X) where smaller num-
ber of teachers will be needed.
5. The introduction of two additional languages should be
suggested.
6. Hindi or English should be introduced at the point of
greatest motivation and need.
7. At no stage should the learning of four languages be
made compulsory.
7. Dull Teaching ; The Commission blames the rigidity of
the educational system for the dull and uninspiring school teach-
1. Hindustan Times -Dated 30, 6, 1966.
School Gurriculum 61
ing today. ‘There should be a general atmosphere of reform.
Experimental elforts should be encouraged and the new methods
of teaching diffused among all schools and teachers.”
The production of quality text books being a key factor in
raising standards, the Education Ministry should establish in the
public sector, an autonomous organisation functioning on com-
mercial lines to publish text books at the national level. A small
committee could work out the details of the scheme. Preparation
and production of text books should be the responsibility of State
Education Departments and should operate on a no-profit, no-
loss basis.
Guidance and Counselling should be considered an integral
part of education at all stages. To begin with a visiting counsellor
should be appointed fora group of 10 schools. Talented students
should be helped to develop in an atmosphere of free expression
If talent is located early, it should be channelled properly, the
report says. Slow learners and backward children should be given
individual attention and their problems diagnozed through child
clinics and Parent Teacher Associations.
The new approach in evaluation' should be to improve written
examinations, the universal mode of evaluation in India in such a
way that it becomes a valid test of the student’s educational
achievement A common internal examination for inter school
comparability could be held at the end of the primary stage of
education. This would be held at the end of the primary stage
of education. This would be more reliable than school tests.
Question papers should be oriented towards particular objectives
other than the acquisition of information and at certain stage oral
tests should be employed. /
The report recommends that the certificate given by a board
of school at the end of school education should only state the
performance of the student in different subjects without declaring
that he has passed or failed the entire examination. The school
should also give a certificate based on the internal assessment of
a student’s work. A student should be able to seek a job or entry
into a vocational training institution on the basis of the school
certificate alone. The report says the board should allow students
to appear for an examination to enable them to improve their
marks in particular subjects. Experimental schools should be
established with powers to assess their own students and give certi-
ficate equivalent to the external board of examination.
60 Ptolliari Commission
(ation of teachers to the revised curriculum through “in service”
education. Schools should be free to devise and experiment with
new curriculum suited to their needs. Training colleges and
universities should give a lead through their experimental schools.
Slate Boards of School Education should prepare advanced
curriculum in all subjects and introduce them in a phased
manner in schools which fulfil certain staff condition and provide
facilities.^
‘In general or non-vocational schools a common curriculum of
general education should be provided for the first 10 years and
diversification of studies and specialization should begin only
at the higher secondary stage. Standards of attainment should
be clearly defined at the end of each sub-stage’, the Commission
says. Language study at the school stage needs revival and
“a new policy regarding language study at this stage required to
be formulated, particularly in view of the fact, that English has
been recognised as an associate official language for an indefinite
period.”
6. Guiding Principles : Modification of the language formula
should be guided by the following principles—
1 . Hindi as the official language of the Union enjoys an
importance next only to that of the mother tongue.
2. A working knowledge of English will continue to be an
asset to the student.
3. Proficiency in language depends as much on the types of
teachers and facilities as on the length of time in which it
is learned.
4. The most suitable stage for learning three languages is
the lower secondary (classes VIII-X) where smaller num-
ber of teachers will be needed.
5. The introduction of two additional languages should be
suggested.
6. Hindi or English should be introduced at the point of
greatest motivation and need.
7. At no stage should Ihe learning of four languages be
made compulsory.
7. Dull Teaching : The Commission blames the rigidity o
the educational system for the dull and uninspiring school teach-
1. Hindustan Times— Dated 30, 6, 1966.
School Gurriculum 61
ing today. ‘There should be a general atmosphere of reform.
Experimental efforts should be encouraged and the new methods
of teaching diffused among all schools and teachers.”
The production of quality text books being a key factor in
raising standards, the Education Ministry should establish in the
public sector, an autonomous organisation functioning on com-
mercial lines to publish text books at the national level. A small
committee could work out the details of the scheme. Preparation
and production of text books should be the responsibility of State
Education Departments and should operate on a no-profit, no-
loss basis.
Guidance and Counselling should be considered an integral
part of education at all stages. To begin with a visiting counsellor
should be appointed for a group of 10 schools. Talented students
should be helped to develop in an atmosphere of free expression
If talent is located early, it should be channelled properly, the
report says. Slow learners and backward children should be given
individual attention and their problems diagnozed through child
clinics and Parent Teacher Associations.
The new approach in evaluation should be to improve written
examinations,' the universal mode of evaluation in India in such a
way that it becomes a valid test of the student’s educational
achievement A common internal examination for inter school
comparability could be held at the end of the primary stage of
education. This would be held at the end of the primary stage
of education. This would be more reliable than school tests.
Question papers should be oriented towards particular objectives
other than the acquisition of information and at certain stage oral
tests should be employed. y
The report recommends that the certificate given by a board
of school at the end of school education should only state the
performance of the student in different subjects without declaring
that he has passed or failed the entire examination. The school
should also give a certificate based on the internal assessment of
a student’s work. A student should be able to seek a job or entry
into a vocational training institution on the basis of the school
certificate alone. The report says the board should allow students
to appear for an examination to enable them to improve their
marks in particular subjects. Experimental schools should be
established with powers to assess their own students and give certi-
ficate equivalent to the external board of examination.
62 Kothari Commission
8. Science Study ; Science education should become an
integral part of school education and ultimately become a part of
all courses at university level, the Commission said. Attempt
should be made to orient work experience to technology and
industrialization and Science should be applied to productivity
process, including agriculture.
9. The Three Language Formula— An Operation^ :
Classes — I-IV : One language should be compulsory.
It will naturally be the mother-tongve.
Classes — A-VIII : Two languages (Regional or mother
tongue) and official (Hindi or English)
language.
Classes — IX-X : Three languages should be obligatory.
Classes — XI-XII : The study of no language should be
compulsory.
10. Hindi is Ignored : According to Dr. Seth Govind Dass,
‘I do not understand why English should be a compulsory language
to be taught to the students. I am not against learning English
or any other language but there should not be any compulsion in
this respect. This Commission has recommended a modified three
language formula which in its context meant that it will not be
necessary for students to learn Hindi which is constitutionally the
official language of the Union. This recommended formula in my
view is quite antinational and against the Constitution’.^
11. Sanskrit has no Value : Dr. Sampurnanand accused the
Education Commission of grave default in their scanty references
to Sanskrit. He attributed their lack of enthusiasm to the com-
mission. He suggested that the Commission’s report should be
burnt.^
The study of our heritage, treasured in Sanskrit classics
would rank below the search far precision in our list of objectivec
for access to the sources of our heritage is now possible even
without Sanskrit, x X x The cause of Sanskrit is not served by
exagerating its claims.
Apart from the language problem, other suggestions are
honoured by the educationists.
1. Agarwa] J. C. — Major Recommendation of Education Commission.
Page 85.
2. The Patriot— 3rd July, 1966.
3. John V. V.— ‘On Not Learning Sanskrit’, Hindustan Tmi«.
16_1_1967.
Teaching Methods, Guidance
And Evaluation
Modern teaching is book and material-aid centred. The
teacher, teaching in the class, always takes the help of various
devices of teaching. These devices can be named, black board,
charts, maps, models, magic lantern, projector, etc. Another
problem of guiding the students and evaluating their but-put
which they earn during learning tenure goes side by side.
Apart from this, size of the class, school building, education
of the back ward, children etc. are the other aspects which should be
considered for effective teaching and better results. Our Commi-
ssion has recommended various useful point to solve the problems
mentioned above.
‘I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) Teaching Methods : Discovery and Diffusion : The main
factors responsible for dull and uninspiring school teaching to
day are the rigidity of the educational system and the failure of
administrative machinery to diffuse new education practices to
schools. The weakness should be overcome.
A good educational system should be dynamic, flexible and
discriminating enough to help institutions and teachers.
1. Teacher should be supported by the administrative
authority for creating a general atmosphere of reform
and he should be supported by the head of the insti-
tution.
2. The educational administration can encourage and hasten
the diffusion of new teaching methods by (i) combining
permissiveness with persuation. (ii) suggesting the
employment of new methods at different stages according
' to the ability of schools, (iii) giving necessary in-service
training to teachers, (iv) providing adequate guide
materials which should be constantly revised and
improved.
64 Kothari Commission
(2) Text books, Teachers Guides and Materials : (1) Pro*
vision of quality text-books and other teaching learning materials
is a key programme for raising standards at comparatively low
cost.
2. A comprehensive programme of text-book production at
the national level should be implemented by mobilizing
the text book talent in the country on the lines already
being attempted by NCERT. They will also help in
national integration.
3. The Ministry of Education should take steps to establish
in the public sector, an autonomous functioning on
commercial lines for the production of text books. A
small committee may be set up to work out the details
of the project.
4. The effort at the national level should be supported and
augmented by each state setting up an expert section
for the production of text books.
5. The preparation, try out and evaluation of text books
should be the responsibility of the State Education
Departments. The sale and distribution of text books
are better left to the student co-operatives and not be
assumed directly by the departments.
6. The production of text books and teaching aids at the
State level should preferably be entrusted to an auto-
nomous agency functioning in close liaison with the
education department.
7. At least 3 or 4 books should be provided in each subject
to provide a multiple choice of books for the schools.
8. Liberal policies should be adopted for remunerating
authors.
9. The entire organisation of State production of text books
should be run on a non-profit basis.
10. Teachers’ guides and others instructional material should
supplement text books.
11. Lists of minimum teaching aids and equipment needed
by each category of schools should be prepared and
steps taken to provide the equipment to every school
on a high priority basis.
12. Education departments should work with the All India
Radio for the use of Radio and Television lessons supp-
Teaching Methods, Guidance and Evaluation 65
lemented by printed guide materials for teachers and
pupil.
13. Teachers should be helped and trained to rely on inex-
pensive and locally available or improved teaching aids.
Costly equipment should be shared by schools in neigh-
bourhood.
(3) Size, of the class .: (1) It is necessary to restrict the
number of pupils admitted to each class to a maximum of 50 in
the lower primary, 45 in the higher primary and lower secondary
and 40 in higher secondary.. . ,
2. Research should be taken in the problems and techni-
ques of multiple-class teaching. Training institutions
should orient to these techniques.
(4) School building : ( 1) It is necessary to take steps to clear
the backlog of unconstructed school buildings as well as to pro-
vide additional building for new enrolment.
2. Loans and grant-in-aid should be given on a liberal
basis to private schools for the construction of buildings.
3. In view of the shortage of traditional building material
and the cost involved, will designed and constructed
Kaclto structures should be accepted as a part of the
school system.
4 In rural areas, efforts should be made to encourage local
initiative and contribution in putting up school building.
5 Temporary structures may be used whatever possible
and improved techniques of construction may be adopted
in putting up pucca building.
6 In order to accelerate provision of school buildings,
‘ construction in rural areas may be entrusted to local
communities or villages panchayats, and in urban areas,
Municipalities and Corporations may be utilised for the
purpose.
Educational Building Development group should be set
un in each State within the Public Works Department
and working in close association with the Education
Department.
To avoid delays in the construction of government build-
inos a separate unit of the P.W.D. should be set up for
the extension of educational building programmes.
66 Kothari Commission
(5) Guidance and Counselling : Should be an integral part
of education.
1. Guidance at the Primary Stage : Simple measures be
introduced at this level. (1) familiarising teachers under training
with diagnostic testing and the problem of individual differences,
(2) organising in-service courses for primary teachers, (3) pro-
ducing occupational literature, (4) helping pupils and parents in
choice of further education.
2. Guidance at the Secondary Stage : Guidance at the
secodary stage should, among other things, help in the indentifi-
cation and development of the abilities and interests of adolescent
pupils. The ultimate objective should be to introduce adequate
guidance service in all secondary schools with a trained Coun-
sellor in-charge of the programme. But in view of the limited
financial and personnel resources, a short-range programme
should be adopted for the next 20 years consisting of (1) a
minimum guidance programme for all secondary schools through
a visiting school counsellor for a group of ten schools, assisted by
the school teachers in the simple guidance functions. (2) com-
prehensive guidance programme in selected schools, one in each
direct, to serve as models. (3) provision of necessary supervisory
staff in the State Bureaus of Guidance.
3. General : (i) All secondary school teachers should be
introduced to guidance concepts through pre or in-service training.
The training colleges should be suitably staffed for the purpose.
(ii) Arrangements should be made for the professional
training of guidance works by the State Bureaus of
Guidance and training colleges. Advanced training
should be organised at the national level.
(iii) Ancillary programmes should include the production of
guidance literature and materials and research into prob-
lems of guidance in Indian situations.
(6) Search for and Development of Talent ; The search
for the talent must be a continuous process; pursued at all stages,
but the secondary state is the most crucial.
2. In adition to programmes or enrichment of advanced
curricula, a variety of extra-mural programmes should be
organized for the talented, such as summer schools, visits
to places of educational interest, etc. These programmes
Teaching Methods, Guidance and Evaluation 67
should be extend to those pupils also whose home envir-
onment is not conducive in study.
3. Teachers should be oriented to the special techniques of
dealing with the talented children, especially to the need
for providing an atmosphere for free expression and
creative work.
(7) The Backward Child : Neglect of backward children
leads to wastage of educational facilities and human resources
and it is necessary for a developing country to reduce wastage
to the minimum. Steps should be taken to diagnose the causes of
under-achievement and formulate and implement remedial
programmes within the school system, with the help of interested
teachers and child guidance clinics, where available, and parent-
teacher associations.
(8) Evaluation : Evaluation is a continuous process; it
forms an integral part of the total system of education and is
intimately related to educational objectives.
1. The new approach to evaluation .will attempt to improve
the written examination so that it becomes more valid
and reliable.
2. Evaluation at primary stage should help pupils to imp-
rove their achievement in the basic skills and develop-
ment of right habits and attitudes.
3. It would be desirable to treat classes I to IV as an
ungarded unit to enable children to advance at their own
place where this is not feasible, classes I and II may be
treated as one block, divided into two groups-one for
slow and the other for fast learners.
4. At higher primary stage, in addition to written examina-
tions, weightage should be given at this stage to oral tests
as a part of internal assessment. Diagnostic, Teacher
made tests and cumulative records should be maintained.
5. External Examination at the End of the Primary Stage :
Although the first national standard of attainment is
to be set at the end of the primary stage, it is not consi-
dered necessary or desirable to prescribe a rigid and
uniform level of attainment through a compulsory ex-
ternal examination. Periodic survey of the level of
achievement of primary schools should be conducted
68 Kothari Commission
by school authorities through refined tests prepared by
State Evaluation Organization.
6. A Common External Examination for Inter-school
Comparability : The district educational authorities may
arrange for a common examination at the end of the
primary stage for schools in the district, using stand-
ardised and refined tests. This examination will have
greater validity and reliability than school examination
and will provide inter-school comparability of level of
programme.
7. A certificate at the end of the primary course accom-
panied with school record should be given to the student
by the school.
8. Special tests may be held for the award of scholarships
for identifying talent.
9. Improvement in External Examinution : External exami-
nations should be improved by raising the technical
competence of paper-setters, orienting question papers to
objectives other than the acquisition of knowledge,
improving the nature of questions, adopting scientific
scoring procedures, mechanising the scoring of scripts
and the processing of results.
10. Certificate given by Board and School : The certificate
issued by the State Board of School Education on the
basis of the results of external examination should
give the candidate’s performance in different subjects
for which he has appeared. There should be no remark
to the effect that he has passed or failed in the whole
examination. The candidate should be permitted to
appear again, if he so desires, for the entire examination
or for separate subjects in order to improve his per-
formance.
11. The student should receive a certificate from the school
also giving the record of his internal assessment as con-
tained in his cumulative record card and this should be
attached to that given by the Board.
12. Establishment of Experimental Schools : Experimental
schools should be established and they should be permit-
ted to frame their own curricula, prescribe their ovn
learning meinous, ^juiaance ana evaluation oy
text books and conduct tbeir educational activities
without external restrictions.
13. Method of Internal Assessment : Internal assessment
by schools should be comprehensive and evaluate all
aspects of the student growth including those not
measured by the external examinations. It should be
descriptive as well as qualified. Written examinations
conducted by the schools should be improved and
teachers trained appropriately. The internal assessment
should be shown separately.
14. Higher Secondary Examination : During the transitional
period higher secondary students will have to appear
for two successive external examination- — at the end of
classes X & XT within one year. Where however the
courses in classes IX to XI are integrated the exami-
nation at the end of classss need not be insisted upon.
2. THE EVALUATION
The Commission has rightly emphasised on teaching methods,
guidance and evaluation for the qualitative improvement. The
following causes are responsible for the progress.
(i) The weakness of the average teacher.
(ii) The failure to develop proper educational research on
teaching methods.
(iii) The rigidity of the existing educational system.
(iv) The failure of the administrative machinery to bring
about a diffusion of new and dynamic methods of
teaching.
The average teacher wants security rather than the oppor-
tunity for creativity. They should be encouraged and helped
beyond the departmental prescription. The diffusion of new
methods, quality of text books, state production of text books
etc. are necessary.
Teaching aids and their uses should be known to the teachers
(i) The training of teachers in the use and preparation of simple
and improvised teaching aids (ii) The use of the school workshop
(ii) Manufacturing of simple equipment and (iv) Sharing the
more costly equipment in common by schools in a given neigh-
bourhood.
The new concept of evaluation should be the integral part
70 Kothari Commission ’
of the total system of education and is intimately related to
educational objectives. Improvement in written examination
should be done on the lines of external examination.
The Commission has suggested many new things to assess the
process of education of a child. It suggests that the public exami-
nation should not be a compulsory measure at any level . or stage
of school education. By releasing the teacher and the pupil exa-
minations, the Commission will earn the gratitude of millions of
young people. The plebbeins may now rejoice for their day of
deliverance is at hand.^
(1) A Closer Book : The Commission visualizes the problem
of evaluation which is based on the methods of teaching and on
objectives which a nation seeks. As there should be no public
examination at any stage of school education as compulsory
measure, the number of students receiving education would go
up considerably. This will lead to eradicate wastage and
stagnation.
(2) Emphasis on Internal Assessment : Realising the adverse
effect of external examinations, the Commission has suggested
that Internal Assessment by schools should be comprehensive
and evaluate all aspects of students growth including those noi
measured by the external examination. This assessment should
be shown separately. It will create a meaningful and effective
change.
(3) Why Experimental School ? The experimental schools
suggested by the Commission may function directly under the
Board of Secondary Education. These schools will prove useful
in framing new curricula and teaching devices.
(4) Purpose of Internal Assessment : We have just discussed
the importance of internal assessment. The assessment will
achieve these objectives — (I) Knowledge of terms, facts, principles
and process in content area. (2) Ability to apply knowledge in
a new situation. (3) Attitudes and interests related to content
area. (4) Skills in content areas.
(5) Programme of Action : Most of the teachers cannot inden-
tify the specific objectives realized by them during their teaching.
Therefore, the commission recommends them to administer
various tests so that they may come in contact with the subject-
matter.
1. Mitra K. Sahib — ‘The Education Commission and Evaluation.’ NIO
Journal Vol. No- 1 1 ; Nov. 1966, page 36.
Teaching Methods, Guidance and Evaluation
71
(6) Guidance at Various Level : Introducing guidance pro-
gramme at different levels, it is hoped, will bear better results in
searching talents. The Commission recommends that there should
be at least one Counsellor for every institution in an organised
way.
(7) Elasticity, Dynamisim and Diffusal ; The Commission
has emphasized the poinUthat educational administration can
encourage and hasten the diffusion of the new teaching methods
by — (1) combining permissivenes with persuation. (2) employing
new methods in stages according to the ability of schools. (3)
giving necessary in-service training to teachers. (4) providing
adequate guidance material which will be constantly revised and
improved.
(8) Improvement of External Examination : The Commission
has recommended the following steps — (1) Raising the technical
competence of paper setters. (2) Orienting the question papers
to objectives other than aquisition of knowledge. (3) Improving
the nature of questions. (4) Adopting scientific scoring proce-
dures. (5) Mechanising the scoring of script and processing of
results.
The Commission has played an important role in reforming
the various techniques of teaching, improving skills of students
through guidance and counselling, proper evaluation of work and
the conduct of the student through external and internal exami-
nation.
Education : Adminis-
tration 8c Supervision
The Commission has suggested a national policy for the
locale of new schools to avoid wastage and duplication. The
Commission has investigated the causes of ill-administration and
ineffective supervision and suggested new ways to develop
effective administrative agency and supervisory staff. The Com-
mission has worked also on the setting up of a national pattern
of common school system and National Board of School Edu-
cation.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) The Common School of Public Education ; This system
of Public Education would include all government, local authority
and added schools. Only two types of schools (i) Independent and
(ii) Unrecognized will remain out of its scope.
1. The objective of educational policy should be to evolve,
over the next 20 years, a common school system of
public education which would cover all parts of the coun-
try, provide equality of access to all children and will
maintain such a standard that an average parent will not
feel the need to send the child to an independent or
unrecognized school.
Following steps should be taken— (i) The existing discrimi-
nation between teachers working under different managements
should be done away with, (ii) Tuition fees should be abolished
in a phased programme at primary and lower secondary stage by
the end of 4th and 5th plans respectively, (iii) The existing
discrimination between schools under different management
should be reduce to minimum and all schools should be provided
with the minimum essential conditions necessary for good edu-
cation. (iv) The neighbourhood school plan should be adopted
at the lower primary stage to eliminate differences between
schools for the privileged and the under-privileged.
School Education : Administration and Supervision
(A) Government and local Authority Schools— Ths teachers
of Government and Local Authority schools do not have
much'i'Sincerity, so the following measures may be
adopted ; (i) A school committee with local represen-
tation should look-after the management of every govern-
ment and authority school or a group of school in an
area. Each committee will operate its own school fund
for the provision of service in schools, (ii) Rational
Transfer policy should be formulated so that teachers
are not transferred too often, (iii) Greater freedom
should be given to these schools.
{B) Private Schools — It is the responsibility of the Govern-
ment to see that private aided institutions are satis-
factorily managed through adequate support. Those that
are not so managed should be taken over by the
government or eliminated. With the abolition of tuition
fees, most of the private schools will come within the
common school system and should be assisted to
strengthen their management in the following ways : (i)
Each private school should have a managing committee
consisting of representives of the management, the Edu-
cation Department and teachers, (ii) Grant-in-aid should
be improved on the basis indicated in the Report. Grant-
in-aid Code should be amended, (iii) Good private
schools which abolish tuition fees under the common
school system should be helped to maintain existing
standards and grant-in-aid should be adjusted on the
basis of quality schools.
(C) The Neighbourhood School — Under this concept all the
children should attend the school in the locality, (i)
During the first 10 years, all primary schools should be
improved to the minimum level and about 10% schools
should be raised to a higher standard, (ii) This system
should be introduced where public opinion is in favour
of it. (iii) 90% scholarships should be given at higher
level to those students who received their education
under Public System.
(2) A Nation-wide Programme of School Improvement — (1)
lach institution should be treated as a unit by itself and helped
0 grow at its own individual pace. Physical facilities should be
74 Kothari Commissjori
improved through the co-operation of local community. (2)
Evaluation criteria for schools should be worked out by each
State and may be used by schools for selfrevaluation and by ins-
pecting officers for their annual triennial inspections.
(2) Supervision ; Reorganization of the State Development :
(1) State Education Department will be the principal agency
to deal with educational matters and will, therefore, be respon-
sible for— (i) the development and implementation of a pro-
gramme of school improvement, (ii) the prescription and enforce-
ment of standards, (ii) the training and supply of teachers,
(iv) inspection and supervision, (v) the establishment and main-
tenance of a State Evaluation Organisation, (vi) the maintenance
of quality institutions and provision of extension services, (vii)
the establishment and maintenance of a State Institute of Edu-
cation. (viii) the co-ordination and eventual asumption of
responsibility for vocational and technical education at the school
stage.
(3) Strengthening of Departmental Organisation at District
level— (i) the District Education Officer should be given adequate
status by including the post in the proposed Indian Educational
Service, (ii) adequate authority should be delegated to the
district level, (iii) scales of pay and qualifications of inspectoral
scaff at the district level should be upgraded, (iv) the strength of
the district staff should be increased with the addition of
‘specialists’ and statistical cell, (v) a fair proportion of the district
staff should consist of women officers in order to encourage girls’
education.
(4) Headmasters should be selected carefully and specially
trained. They should be vested with necessary authority and
freedom.
(5) Role of the School Complex in New Supervision— (1) The
District Education Officer will be in touch with each school
complex and as far as possible, deal with it as one unit. The
complex itself will perform certain delegated tasks and deal
with the individual schools within it. Adequate powers and
responsibilities should be delegated to the complex so that better
methods of teaching and evaluation are made possible, facilities
are shared, inservice training programmes are facilitated and
new programmes tried out. (2) The scheme should be first in-
troduced in a few selected districts in each state as a pilot project
School Education : Administration and Supervision 75
before being implemented on a large scale. (3) The school
complex should not only encourage experimentation en-bloc but
also foster individual experimentation within the unit.
(6) The New Supervision — (1) Administration should be
separated from supervision, the District School Board dealing
with the former and the district Education Officer with the latter.
But the two should function in close collaboration. (2) Recogni-
tion should not be a matter of course but should be continuously
earned by every school, irrespective of its management. (3) Every
school should have two types of inspections, an annual one by the
officers of the District school Board for primary schools and by
Officers of the State Education Departments for the secondary
schools; and a triennial or quinquennial inspection organised by
the District Education Officer for the primary schools and by the
State Board of School Education for the secondary schools.
(4) The provision of guidance and extension services to schools is
one of the major responsibilities of the new supervision. (5) In-
service training should be provided to all supervisory and ad-
ministrative officers by SIE^ and NSCEA^.
(7) State Institute of Education — An academic wing will
have to be developed in the State Institute of Education to look
after the in-service training of departmental officers improvement
of teacher education, curricula and text books, guidance, eva-
luation and research and evaluation of programmes.
(8) State and National Boards of Education — Adequate
machinery should be set-up at the State and National level.
1. Standard should be defined at the end of the higher
primary and lower secondary stages and later on, at the
end of the higher secondary stage also when it covers a
period of two years.
2. SEO® and SBSE* will assist and defining measuring and
periodically revising these standards.
3. The National Board of School Education will coordinate
standards at the national level.
(9) State Evaluation Organisation : (1) SEO should be set
up in each State as an independent institution, preferably auto-
1. state Institute of Education.
2. National Staff College for Educational Administration.
3. State Evaluation Organisation.
4. State Board of School Education.
76 Khothari Commission
nomous, and its services should be available to all concerned.
(2) The SEO will assist the District Education OtEcers in improv-
ing evaluation practices in Schools, advise the State Education
Deparments on curricula geared to expected standards, help pre-
paration of text-books and other materials and measure accom-
plished standards for time to time. (3) An Advisory Committee
presided over by the Chairman of State Board of School Educa-
tion will assist the SEO.
(10) State Boards of School Education . SBSE should be
established and it should take over the functioning and responsi-
bilities of the existing Boards. The Boards function as an integral
part of the Department,
1. The Board will be in-charge of the entire school stage in
respect of curricula. Recognition of primary schools
will be given by DEO^ and of secondary schools by the
Department SBSE.
2. Board will conduct the external examination at the end
of the year and other examination in general education.
3. In the long ran, it would be desirable to bring ail school
education— general and vocational-within the scope of a
single organisation like SBSE.
4. A special committee of the Board should be established
to look after the higher secondary stage. Half of its
members should represent the schoo/s and the other half,
the institutions.
5. The time taken for the declaration of examination result
should be minimised by — (i) mechanising the procedures,
(h) setting up sub-boards to cover one or more districts
in order to handle smaller number of candidates,
(11) Role of the Centre ; (1) A National Board of School
Education should be established in the Ministry of Education to
advise the Govt, of India on alt matters relating to school educa-
tion. It will also advise and assist State Education Departments
in curricular reforms and in improving standards. (2) A large
programme should be developed in the Centrally Sponsored sector
for the development of school education particularly in respect of
the establishment of vocational institutions, developing quality
institutions and providing scholarships. (3) The Central Board
of Secondary Education should conduct some high standard exa-
I. District Education Officer.
School Education : Administration and Supervision 77
minations individual school subjects at two levels — classes X and
XII — in consulation with National Board of School Education.
(12) Unrecognized School : It may be desirable to introduce
legislation for the compulsory registration of all educational insti-
tutions and it should be made an offence to run an unregistered
intstitution. Power should also be vested in the State Govern-
ment to remove any educational institution from the register if
stipulated conditions are not fulfilled.
2 THE EVALUATION
Mr. M. C. Chagla deserves the credit of appointing the Edu-
cation Commission. He is of the opinion — “If we want to
improve the standard of university education, we have to improve
secondary education and this can be done only by trained
teachers. Secondary education was in most vital sector of the
entire scheme of education and it was essential that its quality
should be improved. Our examination system was defective as
the students abilities and learning were not tested properly. We
have to adopt a revolutionary out-look in examination and evolve
new systems to assess the merits of students.”^ Therefore, the
Commission rationalised each and every thing regarding the dec-
line of standard.
(1) Centre-State Policy Appreciated^ ; We have a federal
system of government which provides for a balance between the
need for national unity and the need for preserving the cultural
diversity found in various subnational groups. There have been
advocates of complete centralisation in respect of education and
there have been advocates of State autonomy. The Education
Commission has taken both points of view into considerarion and
recommended a policy under which it is absolutely necessary and
leave a large amount of autonomy to States in various fields. Its
recommendation that a National Board of School Education
should be set up and that the government at the Centre should
from time to time statements in national educational policy for
the guidance of State government and local authorities go a long
way to fulfil this need.
(2) Scheme of Neighbourhood Schools® : As far as neighb-
j j,! c. Chagla— Hindustan Tii^ Feb. 6, 1967.
2. Educational India— July, 1966.
3. Times of India— July]5, 1966.
78 Kothari Commission
ourhood schools are concerned they wiJJ undoubtedly help to
lower the barrier between the classes. But unless the education
they provide, is of a far higher standard than is imported in the
average school to day, the more well-to-do parents will be reluc-
tant to send their children to these schools. Reservation of most
of the scholarships at the Universty for children who attend these
schools will in any case be a poor sanction. Scholarships hold
little attraction for those who can afford to pay heavy tuition fees
charged by most public schools. This is not to dismiss the idea of
neighbour-hood schools as quixotic. It is rather to emphasize that
the scheme needs to be examined more closely to find out whether
the Government has the means to set up schools of the requisite
standard in sufficient number to make an impact on the prevailing
system in the next decade or two.
(3) The Private School or Education Shops : The Commis-
sion gave an appropriate and valid suggestion to maintain the
standard of education by private schools or coaching shops. These
shops should be registered by the Government. But one thing
comes out of it — What would be the future of these shops and so
called educational institutes after the registration ? The only way
out is that the private candidates should not be allowed in public
examinations. If this is done, only then the standard may be
maintained.
(4) Separate Units : The Commission has suggested the
establishment of new institutions, like NBSE, SBE, etc. Separate
unit for training the staff employed for administration should be
established.
The idea of School Complex or the manner in which a high
school, about three or four higher primary schools and 10 to 20
lower primary schools in the neighbourhood would be integrally
linked together. These complex may be used as a unit for the
introduction of better methods of evaluation and for regulating
the promotion of children from class to class or from one level of
school to another.
These are fine suggestions made by the Commission which
are to be apted in practice.
Higher Education : Objectives
and Improvement
The Commission thought over significant problems which
effect the objectives and improvement of higher education. We
have before as the main problems of the objectives, improvement
of aflSliated colleges, teaching and evaluation, medium of instruc-
tion, student unions and student discipline.
The Commission analysed the main problems and suggested
their solution. It also stressed the ways along which we can go
ahead and approach our main goal during the proposed time;
our main consideration is that the whole of university life should
be taught as one and polarisation between teachers, students and
administration should be avoided.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) Objectives of Universities ; (I) In broad terms, the
functions of the universities in the modern world may be said to
be the following : — (i) to seek and cultivate new knowledge to
engage ourselves vigorously and fearlessly in the pursuit of truth,
and to interpret old knowledge and belief in the" light of new
needs and discoveries, (ii) to provide right sort of leadership in
all walks of life; to identify gifted youth and help them to develop
their potential to the full by cultivating physical fitness, develop-
ing of powers of mind and cultivating right interests, attitudes,
moral and intellectual values, (iii) to provide the society with
competent men and women trained in agriculture, arts, medicine,
science and technology and various other professions, (iv) to
strive to promote equality and social justice and to reduce social
and cultural differences through diffusion of education, (v) to
foster in the teachers and students and through them in society
generally the attitudes and values needed for developing the ‘good
life’ in individual and society.
(2) Indian universities will have to shoulder some special
responsibilities in the present state of our social and educational
development. For instance — (i) they must learn to serve as the
80 Kothari Commission
conscience of the nation, (ii) they should develop the programme
of adult education, (iiij they should assist the schools in their
attempts at qualitative self improvement, (iv) they should shake
off the heavy load of early tradition, (v) they should create the
centre of gravity of Indian academic life within the country itself.
(3) The following three programmes should be followed on
the next 20 years — (i) a radical improvement in the quality and
standards of higher education and research, (ii) expansion of
higher education to meet the manpower needs of national develop*
ment and, to some extent, the rising social ambitions and expect-
ations of the people, (iii) improvement of University organisation
and administration.
(2) Major Universites ; The UGC should select, as soon as
possible, from amongst the existing university, about six uni-
versities Cino'luding one of the I.I.T’S^ and one Agriculture
University) for development as major universities. The pro-
gramme should begin in 1966-67.
1 . Each major university should be assigned a number of
scholarships for under-graduate and post-graduate
students.
2. Each department of faculty of a major university should
have a specially appointed Personnel Advisory Com-
mittee which should work in close collaboration with
appointing authorities of the University.
3. It is necessary to establish ‘cluster’ of advanced centres
in the major universities. About fifty such centres should
be established including some in modern Indian langu-
ages during the next five to ten years. The selection of a
centre of advanced study should be continually earner
and deserved.
4. The recurring and eapital costs of the major universitiei
should be met by the UGC.
(3) Improvement of Other Universities : (1) Every effori
should be made to induce talented students from the major
universities to join the teaching profession. (2) The UGC should
sponsor a scheme for instituting a number of fellowships at three
levels — Lecturers, Readers and Professors. (3) The universities
and afliliated colleges should be encouraged to preselect their
new teachers and attach them to the major universities for a
specific period. (4) Invitations may be given to promising scholars
1, Indian Institute of Technology.
Higher Education ; Objectives and Improvement 81
and scientists from other universities or affiliated colleges to do
research and to conduct seminars.
(4) Development of Affiliated Colleges : (1) Affiliated
Colleges should be classified in terms of the level of their perfor-
mance and assistance should be related to such classification.
(2) Where there is an outstanding college (or a small ‘cluster’
of very good colleges) within a large university which has shown
the capacity to improve itself markedly consideration should be
given to granting it an ‘autonomous’ status,
(5) Improvement of Teaching and Evaluation : The number
of formal classroom and laboratory hours should be reduced.
The remaining time should be alloted for guiding the students.
(2) Every effort should be made to build up good libraries in
universities and colleges. (3) It is most important to emphasize
original thinking in the study of all subjects and to discourage
memorizing. There should be a possibility of undergraduates
coming into occasional contact with senior and outstanding
teachers particularly when a new subject has to be introduced
for the first time. (4) The content and quality of lectures in
general need be considerably improved. (5) No teacher should be
away from his institution during ‘term time’ for more than seven
days in a year. (5) All new appointments should be made during
vacation time so that teachers join their duties at the beginning
of the academic year. No teacher should be permitted to leave
the institution to take up another appointment during the term-
time. (7) There is great need for experimentation, especially in
two important areas— (i) handling large number of students
without increase in expenditure, (ii) a certain amount of teaching
done by research students and by postgraduate students after
their first year. (9) The problem of teaching methods in higher
education has been relatively neglected. It would be examined
by UGC through a special committee appointed for the purpose.
(10) In all teaching universities external examinations should be
replaced by a system of internal assessment supplementing the
external examination ( 11 ) The UGC should set up a Central
Examination Reform Unit to work in collaboration with the
universities. (12) University teachers should be re-oriented to
adopt the new and improved techniques of education through a
large programme of seminars, discussions or workshops. (13)
Early measures should be taken to abolish payment of remuner-
82 Kothari Commission
ation of examiners. As a first step, the total number of answer-
books to be examined by any teacher during a year should not
exceed 500.
(6) Medium of Education ; (1) The regional language should
be adopted as media of education at the University stage in a
phased programme spread over ten years. (2) At under-graduate
level, the regional language and at post-graduate level, English
should be the medium of instruction, (3) Teachers should be
bilingual (knowing the regional language and English). (4) The
maintenance of colleges, teaching through the medium of Hindi
in the non-Hindi areas or of Urdu in any part of the country
where there is a reasonable number of Urdu-speaking student
should be permitted and encouraged. (5) Centres of advanced
study should be established for the development of all modern
Indian language including Urdu. (6) No language should be made
compulsory subject of study at the University stage. (7) Adequate
facilities should be provided in universities and colleges for study
of English. It would be an advantage to teach English as a part
of the elective subject course in the first year of the degree course.
(8) The teaching of important library languages other than
English should be stressed in particular the study of Russian on
a large scale.
(7) Students Services : (1) All institutions of higher
education should organise orientation programmes for new
students in the beginning of the academic year to faciliate adjust-
ment. (2) Steps should be taken to organize, on a high priority
basis, adequate health services in universities and colleges. 0)
Hostel accomodation should be provided for about 25% of the
enrolment at the undergraduate and post-graduate level. (4) Day-
study centres should be provided for about 25% of the non-resi-
dent with low-cost cafefarias. (5) There should be at least one
Counsellor for every thousand students. (6) It is necessary to
develop a rich and varied programme of co-curricular activities
for students. (7) There should be a full time Dean of Student
Welfare for the administration of welfare services.
(8) Student Unions : (I) Each university should decide bow
its students union will function. An experimentation in this
matter should be welcome. (2) Membership of the Students
Union should be automatic, but every student should be expected
to choose at least one activity organised in the union. (3) The
Higher Education ; Objectives and Improvement 83
office-bears should be elected indirectly by the different student
societies in the university, those who spend two or more years in
the same class being disqualified for the purpose. (4) Joint
Commission of teachers and students should be established and
' fully utilised to ascertain and redress the genuine difficulties of
students. (5) The UGC should take initiative in covering and
financially supporting an annual conference of representative of
the Students Unions in Universities and Colleges.
(9) Student Discipline : (I) Education should enable young-
men and women to learn and practice civilized forms of behavi-
our and to commit themselves to special values of significance
(2) The responsibility for indiscipline is multi-lateral and no
effective solution is possible unless each agency— student, parents
teachers, state government and political parties, perform its’
own duty. (3) Ernest efforts should be made to remove the educa-
tional deficiencies that contribute to student unrest and set up an
adequate consultative and administrative machinery to prevent
the occurrence of acts of indiscipline. (4) The incentative to
positive discipline have to come from opportunities which the
institution presents to the intellectual and social demands it makes
of the students. A better standard of student service is also
necessary. (5) The whole university life should be treated as one
and polarization betweeen teachers, students and administration
should be avoided.
2. THE EVALUATION
The Education Commission took too much interest in higher
education. The Commission covered almost all the areas for
improvement. It has suggested many new things which our
planners are thinking to implement.
(1) For New Universities The metropolitan centres of
Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta and Madras should have two universities
each by the end of the Fourth Plan. The universities in each city
should supplement each other’s activities. It suggests that the
affairs of Calcutta University should be examined to find a remed
for the difficulties created by the rapid fall in undergraduates
Keral’s plea for an additional university is justifiables the
Commission says, and adds that the proposal for a university for
the hill areas of the north eastern region should be supported by
a major measure for spearheading economic and social develop.
1, Hindustan Times— dated April 11, 196$. 1
84 Kothari Commission
ment of the area. Laying down a general criterion, the Commission
notes that a new university should be justified only if It leads to a
substantial improvement in standards, output and level of research
and can be justified only when competent men and adequate
physical facilities are available. Universities, the Commission
recommends, should join together at the regional and national
levels in co-operative programmes and supplement their available
facilities, especially in research.
On admissions, the Commission says that the conditions of
eligibility should be elastic enough to permit the admission of all
promising students. While the use of examination marks as major
basis for admissions may continue until the adoption of
better selection methods, their arbitrariness of lack of reliability
should be compensated by making due allowance for the socio-
economic handi-caps of students. Final selection should take into
consideration other factors, such as the school record and profi-
ciency of the student in fields not tested in an examination.
(2) Studenfs-Indiscipline : The Commission did not neglect
the problem of student-unrest. Many educationists have analysed
the problem in their own way. M. C. Setatvad expressed his view
— “Political leaders of all parties including the ruling party have
not hesitated to use the youth for the purpose of propaganda in
order to spread their doctrines. This has resulted in creating
parties and factions in the university campus which in some ways
correspond to the political parties outside.”
(3) Dean of Student Welfare : The working group on student
welfare^ suggested in every university there should be a Dean of
Student Welfare. The working group welcomed the Education
Commission’s recommendation to set up a Planning and Develop-
ment Unit in the universities. The working group felt that the
Dean of Student-Welfare would be the link between the students
and the University authorities to solve various problems.
(4) Recommendation by U. G. C. on Student-Unrest^ • The
Conference requested by the University Grants Commission to
request the Government to place adequate funds at the disposal
of the Commission in order that schemes in universities
1. Organised by Inter University Board,
2. D. O. Letter No. F. 1-106 (CDN) dated 25 Oct. 1966. ‘Recom-
mendations of the U. G. C. Committee on Student Unrest, Dis-
cipline and Welfare.'
Higher Education : Objectives and Improvement 85
colleges which promote the welfare of students and assist in the
adoption of measure necessary to fulfil their genuine needs are
met. High priority should be given to measure which would
impart a greater sense of national purpose and service. In this
context serious attention should be given to the introduction of
more ‘field work’ into the curriculum, social service and work
experience so that education is more intimately linked with life
and the realities of conditions and the problems of the country.
The Conference emphasised the need for universities to
maintain the highest integrity in matters of appointments, elec-
tions, examinations, affiliations, etc. so as to create confidence
in teachers, students and the public. Admissions should be
based solely on merit and considerations of caste, region, etc ;
should not be allowed to come in. The conference recommended
that in academic matters such as admissions add appointments
were should be no outside interference.
The Conference considered some urgent measure for bringing
about improvement in the atmosphere of educational institutions.
In particular it recommended the following :
1. Appointment of Deans of Student Welfare in Universities
and colleges were they do not exist and strengthening of
Dean’s Organisation in other educational centres pro-
vision of counselling and guidance facilities, strengthen-
ing of information and employment bureaus and
institution of effective orientation programmes.
2. Expansion of library facilities and provision of reading
seats and day-study centres, increases in hostel, medical
and recreational facilities for students, financial aid to
needy students and other measures to ensure better living
and working conditions for students and better employ-
ment of their leisure hours
3. Promotion by every possible means of personal contact
between teachers and students. This is essential to the
entire process of good education.
4. Strengthening of proctorial arrangements of the univer-
sity with the participation of students also in the mainte-
nance of peaceful conditions in the Campus.
The Conference feels that it is important to associate student
representatives in discussions relating to student welfare, discipline
and related subjects. In this connection, the conference welcomes
Kothari Commission
the recommendations of the education Commission that the Uni-
versity Grants Commission should convene conferences of stu-
dents representative, and it recommends to the U G.C. that early
action be taken in this matter. The conference appealed to all
political parties to desist from using students for their own
political ends and objectives.
The Commission rightly stated — “To realize these ambitions
objectives is no easy task. To do so in all our universities
would need an order of investment in physical and monetary
terms which is now beyond our reach and a large number of
highly qualified and dedicated teachers who are not available.
What is necessary, therefore, is a well-conceived and comprehen-
sive plan spread over the next twenty years and its vigorous and
sustained implementation.”
Higher Education : Enrolment
and Programme
The Commission gives its views on the enrolment and
programme for the development of higher education. There are
so many problems in the field of higher education on which
practical suggestions have given by the Commission. We all feel
that the present defective system of education is a curse on our
country’s fate. This curse should be changed into boon.
For this, the Commission has suggested the following recom-
mendations.
2. THE RECOMMENDATIONS.
(1) Expansion of Facilities— The expansion of facilities in
higher education should be planned broadly in relation to man-
power needs and employment opportunities. On the basis of the
present trends, it appears that the enrolment in undergraduate
and postgraduate courses will have to be increased from about one
million in 1965-66 to 4 million in 1985-86. Facilities in pro-
fessional courses such as agriculture, engineering or medicine and
those at the postgraduate stage will have to be specially expanded,
(2) Selective Admission— (1) Three measures would have
to be adopted from this point of view — (i) the determination of
the number of places available in an institution in relation to
teachers and facilities available to ensure that standards are
maintained at an adequate level, (ii) prescription of eligibility by
the universit'es. (iii) selection by the institution concerned of
the best students from amongst those who are eligible and seek
admission (2) While the use of examination marks as a major
basis for admission may continue until better selection methods
are devised their arbitrariness or lack of reliability should be
compensated, to the extent possible, by making due allowance
for the socio-economic handicaps of studendts so as to relate
selection more directly to innate talent. (3) Each university
should constitute a Board of University Admissions to advise the
university about all matters relating to admissions. (4) The UGC
88 Kothari Commission
should set up a Central Testing Organization for the develop-
ment of appropriate selection procedures for different courses of
higher education.
(3) Part-Time Education — Opportunities for part-time edu-
cation (Correspondence courses, Evening colleges) should be
extended widely and should include courses in Science and Tech-
nology also. By 1986 about one third of the enrolment in higher
education should be provided through a system of correspondence
courses and evening colleges.
(4) College-Size — (1) A college should normally have a
minimum enorlment of 500 and it would be preferable to raised
to 1,000 or more in as many colleges as possible. (2) The UGC
should undertake a study of the planning of the location of
colleges with special reference to small colleges. (3) In granting
affiliation to colleges, the universities should emphasize the ex-
pansion of existing colleges, rather than establishing new ones.
(4) In granting affiliation to a new college, care should be taken
to see that its location is so planned that it does not interfere
with the proper growth of an already existing institution.
(5) Post-graduate Education and Research — Post-graduate
education and research work should ordinarily by organised m
the universities or in ‘university centres’ where a good programme
can be developed co-operatively by a group of local colleges.
For this — (i) adequate staff (ii) vigorous test of admission, and
(iii) adequate scholarships should be managed. -
(6) Education of Women — (1) At present the proportion of
women students to men students in higher education is 1 •' 4. This
should be increased to about I : 3 to meet the requirements for
educated women in different fields. For this purpose, a pro-
gramme of scholarship and provision of suitable but economical
hostel accomodations should be developed. (2) At the under-
graduate stage, separate colleges for women may be established
if there is a local demand. At the post-graduate level, however,
there is no justification for separate institutions. (3) Wornen
students should have free access to courses in arts, humanities,
sciences and technology. Courses in home-science, nursing edu-
cation and social work need to be developed as these have
attraction for a large proportion of girls. Facilities for advanced
training in business administration and management should also
be provided. (4) Research units should be set up in one or two
universities to deal specially with women education.
Higher Education : Enrolment and Programme 89
(7) New Universities — (I) The metropolitan cities of Bombay,
Calcutta, Delhi and Madras should have two universities each
which would supplement to some extent the work of each
other. The demand from Kerala, Orissa and North Eastern
Region for new universities is also justifiable. (2) In establishing
new universities, the following principles should be kept in view,
(i) It should lead to a substantial improvement in standards, in
out put and level of research, (ii) No new university should be
started unless the agreement of the UGC is obtained and ade-
quate provision of funds is made, (iii) A good university
organisation would be one in which a university has a strong
care of teaching department combined with 30 affiliated colleges
in close proximity, (iv) A new university should not ordinarily
be established in a place where a university centre has not been
in operation for some time, (v) A time of two or three years
should be allowed to elapse between the appointment of the
first Vice-Chancellor and the direct commencement of the Uni-
versity’s work, the Vice-Chancellor being assisted by a planning
Board during the period, (vi) Larger resources should be placed
at the disposal of the UGC.
(8) Calcutta University— -The State Government in consultation
with UGC and the Government of India may have the affairs of
the University of Calcutta examined with a view to finding a way
out of the difficulties created by a rapidly increasing under-
graduate population.
(9) Inter-University Collaboration — It should be the special
responsibility of the UGC to promote collaborative and co-
operative programmes which cut across state, regional or lin-
guistic frontiers.
(10) Reorganisation of Courses — (I) The combination of sub-
ject permissible for the first degree should also be more elastic
than at present, both in arts and sciences. (2) There should be
general, special and honours courses at undergraduate stage.
(3) It is urgent need to introduce flexbility and innovation
in the organisation of the courses for the Master’s degree. (4)
The duration of Ph.D. course should be two to three years.
During the first year of the Ph.D. course students should attend
lectures and tutorials of an advance nature to overcome inade-
quacy of preparation at the Master’s degree stage. (5) Students
for the Ph.D. Courses should be carefully selected. (6) The pro-
§0 iCotiiari Commission
cedure for evaluation of the Ph.D. degree should be improved.
(7) A study of second world language should be obligatory for
all Ph.D. students and compulsory for Master’ degree in certain
subjects. (8) It would be desirable to institute the degree of
Doctor of Science as the highest award given on the basis of
recognized research work. (9) Special elforts stould be made to
promote interdisciplinary studies in universities which have ade-
quately staffed departments in related subjects.
(11) The Social Science : The social sciences should be
given a significant position in the universities and research insti-
tutions. From this point of view — (!) There should be an
adequate provision of scholarships in social science courses. (2)
The choice of subjects should be elastic and it should be possible
for students to combine study of a social science with any group
of subjects. (3) The financial assistance available to universities
for the development of social sciences should be considerably
increased. (4) High level schools or centres of Advance Study
for allied groups of social sciences should be developed in a
number of universities.
(12) Area Studies ; It should be our endeavour to develop
a significant and effective programme of area studies in a few
selected universities and institutions. Such a programme would
require intensive courses in the language of the areas concerned
and the introduction of optional groups of papers in certain social
science subject having reference to the different areas selected
for intensive study.
(13) Study of Humanities : To redress the balance, our
scholars should strive to make significant contributions to the
sum-total of human knowledge and experience in the field of
social and pedagogical sciences and humanistic studies, where
our old traditions and the present challenges posed by social
development present unique opportunities for creative work.
(14) Educational Research : Urgent steps have to be taken
to develop educational research and relate it effectively to the
formulation of educational policies and improvement of
education.
1. A documentation centre and national clearing house m
educational research should be developed at the NCERT.
2. Educational research has to be developed in terms and
in inter-disciplinary fields. It will be the special rcspon-
Higher Education : Enroiment and Programme 91
sibility of Schools of Education to develop educational
research in a big way in collaboration with other depart-
ments.
3. It is desirable to set up a National Academy of Educa-
tion consisting of eminent educationists, broadly on the
lines of the National Institute of Science, to promote
educational thought and research. This should essentially
be a non-official, professional body.
4. An Education Research Council should be set up in the
Ministry of Education for the promotion of Research.
5. There is an urgent need to provide good specialized train-
ing for research work and services for data-processing,
statistical analysis and consulatidn.
6. It would be the responsibility of the NCERT and State
Institute of Education to bridge the wide gap between
the educational research and current research and current
school practices. A similar role will have to be played
by the UGC in the field of Higher education.
7. The total expenditure on educational research has to be
increased considerably, the goal being to devote about
one per cent of State expenditure on education.
2 THE EVALUATION.
The Commission’s views on the expansion and reorganisation
of higher education are welcomed by the great educationists. In
fact our higher education does not produce good results for the
youth, particularly on the Arts’ side. The whole period of higher
education is like a waiting-shed under which a youth wants to
pass his time till he gets employment.
The Commission, therefore, has recommended part-time edu-
cation in the form of evening colleges and correspondence courses.
But the status of the Evening Colleges and Correspondence
Courses is not recognized by the educational world. According to
a journalist, ‘The evening colleges have now been there for so
many years. But the University authorities have yet to decide
to accept them as regular members of the family. The evening
colleges are not allowed to start any science classes or introduce
Honours. These colleges cater to the employment section of
our population which is keen to improve academic qualifications
for securing a better place in life. The result of the evening
9^ Kothari Com mission
college standards are in no way inferior to those of the day
colleges.*'^
Some scholars have stressed these point on the recommenda-
tions of Education Commission,
1. Social Science Research — The Committee on Social
Science Research headed by Dr. V. K. R, V. Rao, the then mem-
ber Planning Commission, has recommended the immediate
setting up of a central organization in the form of a council for
research in social sciences in the couniry. The council should be
responsible for promoting, stimulating and assisting research in
social science. It has also recommended that the council should
provide financial support to institutions engaged in social science
research, which are not eligible for financial assistance from the
University Grants Commission.
2. Sellection of Vice Chancellors — According to V, V. John.
‘Dr. Kothari’s ‘Model Act’ Committee had suggested such an
arrangement for the older universities. It also suggested direct-
appointment of Vice Chancellors in new universities by Stnte
Governments. In the Committee’s view this was better than the
procedure that was now come to be known as the ‘Delhi pattern’
under which a selection committee of notabilities submit a panel
of names for the Visitor or Chancellor to choose from.
The basic mistake is in looking upon the office of Vice
Chancellor as the Commission of professional ambition that
his job is the most important in a new university will not be
disputed. But it ought not be so in a well established university,
where learning alone should be the measure of man’s importance.
In such a university, it should be possible for senior members of
the faculty to serve a term as Vice-Chancellor by rotation, and
after such a brief stint, return to teaching and research.^
3. Selective Admission : The Commission proposes that
during the first three Five Year Plans, a policy of open-door
access has been in operation in course in Arts and Commerce id
most of the affiliated colleges. A stage has, however, now been
reached in the process of expansion when the policy of selective
admissions will have to be extended to all sectors and all institu-
tions of higher education. During the next two d ecades, the
1. Hindustan Times
2. V. V. John — How to choose better Vice-Chancellors. Hindustan
Times— Dated 12 February, 67.
Higher Education : Enrolment and Programme 93
policy demand for higher education is expected to increase still
further as primary education becomes universal and more and
more students complete the secondary school course^
There are two important criteria needed for operating a
programme of selective admission in higher education. —
1 . The determination of the number of places available in
an institution in relation to teachers and facilities avail-
able to ensure that standards are maintained at an
adequate level.
2. Prescriptions of eligibility by the universities; and selec-
tion by the institution concerned by the best students
from amongst those who are eligible and seek admission.
4. Part-time and Own-time Education : The present process
of getting admission in higher education is to get enrolled as full-
time student. There is no way out for those who can’t become
full-time student. For those, who wish to get education, the
Commission has proposed part-time and full time education in
the form of evening colleges and correspondence courses.
Similarly, the Commission’s view on the expansion of post-
graduate courses and research, new universities, size of the
colleges, student welfare, reorganisation of the courses, the social
sciences, etc. have favourable considered by the great education-
ists and common men who want to be a partner Id building the
nation.
}. AggarwalJ. C.— Ibid, Page 131-132,
The Governance of
Universities
In the history of the universities many occassions come when
the question of their governance faces a challenge in the form of
student problem when police-force enters the campus, in appoint-
ing the Vice-Chancellor or framing the courses and the appointing
of Professors, Readers and the other staff.
The Commission aware of the realities and difficulties in the
universities has made certain valuable suggestions.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS.
Universities should evolve dynamic techniques of management
and organisations suited to their special functions and purposes.
The UGC should encourage the function of groups in universities
to study the problem of educational administration and manage-
ment of university affairs.
(1) University Autonomy ; The proper sphere of university
autonomy lies in the selection of students, teachers and the deter-
mination of courses of study, methods of teaching the selection
of areas and problems of research.
(2) Autonomy within the Universities : (1) The universities
should give considerable autonomy to their departments. Wider
administrative and financial powers should be delegated to a
committee of Management to be set up in each Department under
the chairmanship of the head of the department. (2) The free-
dom and autonomy of colleges must be recognised and respected
in the same spirit as the university wants for itself. (3) There
should be joint committee of teachers and students in each depart-
ment and in every college, and a central committee under the
chairmanship of the head of the institution for the discussion of
common problems and difficulties Student representation should
also be associated with the Academic councils and the courts of
universities. (4) A suitable machinery for consultations between
universities, the UGC, the Inter-University Board and theGovern-
luent should bo developed for reaching discussions regarding
The Governance of Universities 95
number of students to be trained, courses of study and problems
of applied research.
(3) University Finances : (I) The State Governments should
place adequate financial resources at the disposal of universities
and simplify rules and procedures of operating them. (2) The
UGC should be enable to give both development and maintenance
grants to State Universities. (3) The finance of the universities
should be placed on a sound footing on the basis of advice given
by the UGC to the state Governments and the universities after
periodical review. (4) Universities should be immune from direct
governmental intervention and also from direct public account-
ability.
(4) Role and Appointment of Vice Cbanceller : (1) While
the choice of the Vice-Chancellor should eventually be left to the
university concerned for the time being, the present ‘Delhi pattern’
or some variation of it may be adopted. The members of the
Selection Committee for the Vice-Chancellor should be known
for there eminence and integrity and there should be no objection
to one of them being connected with the university, but he should
not be a paid employee of the university. (2) The authority to
appoint Vice-Chancellor during the first years of a university’s
life should vest in the Visitor/Chancellor. (3) The Vice-Chancellor
should, as a rule, be a distinguished educationist or eminent scholar
with adequate administrative experience. (4) The office term of the
Vice-Chancellor should be five years and he should not be appoint-
ed for more than two terms in the same university. (5) All posts
of Vice-Chancellor should be whole-time and carry a salary.
(6) The retirement age for the Vice-Chancellor should be 65 years;
an exception being made in the case of exceptionally qualified
persons of All India eminence. (7) It would be an advantage if
the successor to a Vice-Chancellor could be designated, so far as
possible, in advance by a year or so. (8) Adequate powers should
be vested in the Vice-Chancellor for the efficient working of the
university.
(5) Legislation for Universities ; (1) The court should be
policy making body of the university with a membership of not
more than one hundred, of which about half should be external.
(2) The Executive Council with the Vice-Chancellor as Chairman
should consist of 15-20 members, about half being internal an^
blilf external. (3) The Academic Council should be the so]
96 Kothari Commission
authority for determining the courses of study and standards.
(4) A Standing Committee of the Academic Council should deal
with urgent matters, if the Academic Council can not meet fre-
quenty enough for the purpose. (5) Each university should have
an Academic Planing Board for permanent planing and evalua-
tion, detached from day administration. (6) The lUB should
appoint a Committee to go into the question of reform of ritual
and procedure of convocation functions. (7) The Governors of
the State should be the Visitors of all Universities in the state
and should have power to direct inspection or inquiry into
the affairs of a university. (8) The Ministry of Education and
UGC should take the initiative to revise existing legislation in
India and to amend it in the light of the recommendation made.
(9) The constitution of university should be formulated sufficiently
general terms so as to leave room for and promote, innovation
and experimentation. (10) A suitable machinery for tripartite
consulations between the UGC, the Ministry of Education and
the State Governments should be evolved before legislation rela-
ting to universities is enacted.
(6) Universities and the Law Courts ; The Government of
India may request the Supreme Court to frame a suitable policy
to help the maintenance of University Autonomy and the proper
development of higher education.
(7) Affiliated Colleges : (1) Affiliation of colleges should
be granted by the Universities after consulations with the State
Government. (2) A committee of Vice-Chancellors in the State
should be set up to advise the Education Department regarding
grant-in-aid to affiliated colleges. (3) There should be a Council
of affiliated colleges in every affiliating university to advise the
university on all matters relating to affiliation of colleges, (4) Affi-
liation should be regarded as a privilege which is to be continually
earned and deserved. (5) The UGC may examine the question
of a small nucleus staff being sanctioned to each affiliating univer-
sity for the proper organization of an inspection programme.
(8) Government Colleges : Different approaches to suit
local conditions and traditions may by devised for the manage-
ment of Government colleges, e.g., the establishment of a separate
Directorate of Collegiate Education or an autonomous organiza-
tion for Government Colleges in a State, or placing each college
under autonomous Board of Governors.
The Governance of Universities 97
(9) Private Colleges : (1) A discriminating policy should
be adopted to that greater freedom and assistance to the really
good private institution could be given. (2) The procedure for
calculation and payment of grants-in-aid should be simplified on
the lines recommended.
(10) The Inter University Board : (1) The Statutory or
deemed universities should become members of the lUB^ auto-
matically. (2) The degree or diplomas granted by a statutory or
deemed university in India should receive automatic recognition
from all the other statutory or deemed universities. (3) The lUB
should be strengthened financially to enable it to develop advisory,
research and advice functions for and on behalf of the univer-
sities.
(11) The University Grants Commission : (1) All higher
education should be regarded as an integrated whole and the UGC
should eventually represent the entire spectrum of higher educa-
tion. For the time being, however, it would be more feasible to
set up separate UGC — types organizations for agricultural, engi-
neering and medical education and to create a machinery that
would effectively co-ordinate them. (2) The UGC should consist
of 12-15 members; not more than one third should be officials
of government and at least one-third from the universities. There
should be no objection to a serving Vice-Chancellor being
appointed as a member of the UGC. (3) The UGC should adopt
a practice of working through standing committee set up to deal
with important responsibilities entrusted to it. (4) The Visiting
Committees appointed by the UGC should visit each university
every three years and work in greater details and depth.
(5) Considerably larger funds should be available to the UGC to
enable it to deal effectively with the magnitude and importance
of problems and responsibilities as envisaged. (6) The responsi-
bility of co-ordinating standards should continue to vest in one
body, viz. the UGC. State UGC, should not therefore, be
created.
2. THE EVALUATION
The universities of the day play very important role to
inculcate social, moral and spiritual values among the students
who are the builders of the future. Now-a-days a university faces
the problem of autonomy, enrolment an d budget. So the Com .
1. Now Association onudian Universities.
98 Kothari Commission
mission has suggested many new things to maintain the gover-
nance of the temples of learning. A university cannot work
efficiently until it has its own rules, regulations and teehniques
and is free from outer control. These universities should ser
the purpose of real education, the training of mind, body and tl
soul.
(1) University Autonomy : The University autonomy U
principally in three fields — (i) the selection of students, (ii) tl
appointment and promotion of teachers; and (iii) the determinatic
of courses of study, methods of teaching, and the selection of arei
and the problems of research. In considering the problems of tl
autonomy we should recognize that it should be maintained i
(i) the university departments, colleges, teachers and student
(ii) the relation of one university with another through UGC an
lUB, (iii) the State and Central Governments. Some scholars ai
of ths opinion that university autonomy has to be earned. It ma
be a concept. We have transplanted it in an environmer
where both the political and the academic traditions has made i
an obvious way of life.
The principle of university autonomy is based on the recogni
tion of the fact that the university aims at objectives in the pursui
of which expertise of an exceptional order is required and can b
provided only by a community of scholars. The scholars can giv
of their best only in an environment of freedom. This freedon
has to be justified and sustained. However by the academn
community’s capacity for self regulation, if such capacity shoulc
be lacking within the academic community, we have an impossibli
situation for no external higher education within a given university
The university can be saved and sustained only by the learning ano
the integrity of its own community of teachers and learners. H
the community of teachers and learners are not committed to high
ethical and intellectual standards, there is no alternative but to
write oflF the university as falling outside the field of genuine higber
education.
University autonomy cannot become a reality without
financial independence. Since our universities are dependent on
public funds for the major of their expenditure, the temptation for
a State Government to exact compliance with its wishes as the
price for budgetary allocations may sometimes become irresistible.
This temptation can be eliminated by legislating statutory grant.?
The Governance of Universities 99
to cover their normal running expenditure, the amount so fixed
being subject to revision by a statutory body independent of govern-
mental control. Such a body in each State, consisting of the vice-
chancellors and at least one full time educationist other than the
vice-chancellors, should not only advise the government in regard
to the financial support of universities, but also assist the univer-
sities in their programmes of self-assessment and mutual coope-
ration. The scholars suggested that universities, by letting the
public know of the nature of their programmes and the quality of
their performance, should make an effort to raise revenues in
addition to government grants. The other type of autonomy lies
within the university. The basic idea of the autonomy within the
campus lies with the principles of academic achievement, broad
and magnanimous administrative discipline. There must be
balance in academic and nonacedmic staff and their affairs.
(2) University Finances : “State Governments should deal with
understanding and imagination and place adequate financial
resources at their disposal to enable them to carry out their obli-
gations in an efficient way. It is essential to simplify rules and
regulations and to operate them with speed and efficiently.”^
(3) Prior Approval for New Varsities : Dr. D. S. Kothari
suggested to Central Government that the prior approval for new
varsities should necessarily be taken. ^ It was stressed that no
major legislation about universities should be undertaken without
prior consultation between the Governments concerned, the union
Education Ministry and the UGC. Such a convention should be
established.
(4) Selection of a Vice-Chancellor : The Commission suggested
the pattern of selecting the Vice-Chancellors on Delhi University
pattern and the person for the post should be an eminent scholar
in the field of learning.
(/; What is Delhi Pattern ? Dr. Kothari’s “model act” commi-
ttee had suggested such an arrangement for the older universities.
It also suggested direct appointment of Vice-Chancellors in new
universities by State Governments. In the Committee’s view,
this was better than the procedure that has now come to be known
as the Delhi pattern’’, under which a selection committee of
1 Agarwal J. C.— op. cit.. Page 42.
2, U. G, C. Report, 1965-66 (Hindustan Times 31-8-1967).
100 Kothari Commission
notabilities submit a panel of names for the Visitor or Chancellor
to choose from.
The excellent choices made for Delhi University in recent
years has won great praise for this procedure which it does not
deserve. For when a Chancellor nominates a member of the
selection committee and is able to make a final choice from among
the names recommended by the committee it is not difficult to
contrive the appointment of the person whom the Chancellor or
the State Government want. Why not eliminate the elaborate
make-believe and choose the favourite in a direct manner, so that
the public would know who is really answerable for the choice ?
(z7) Celebrity hunting : V.V. John says — Not that the selection
committee procedure results usually in a wangle. The more fre-
quent occurrance is that the committee’ in its favour and earnest-
ness, goes celebrity-hunting for safety, plumbs for well known
names. Better choices could be made if the selection committee
instead of functioning in aloof and secret conclave, consulted
representatives of the university’s faculty before making up their
minds. What is suggested is not an opinion poll but a study of
the actual needs of the university.
Celebrity hunting has one advantage, the committee does
not have to decide what qualities it is looking for in a vice-chan-
cellor. A big name silences such inquiries. Such is the importance
of being important. If, on the other hand, we acknowledged, that
the needs of different univetsities may be different, and that, as
Arnold Rugby said, “no man should meddle with a university
who does not know it very well and love it very dearly”, we may
end up by getting fewer celebrities but better vice chancellor.^
(5) Force from Government Control : Dr.A. Lakshmanswami
Mudaliar, the Vice-Chancellor of Madras University says — a uni-
versity is a temple of learning which the “iconaclast” could not
be allowed to desecrate by introducing methods of control which
may find a place in the market-square or the hustings. And yet
the tendency to play this role among those who believe that they
have the democratic authority is great indeed.”^
(6) Training of Administrators : Mr. M. C. Chagla expressed
1 . V.V, John — How to Choose Better Vice-Chancellors — Hindustan
Times.
2 . Hindustan Times— Dated 23. 12. 66,
The Governance of Universities 10 i
his view that an administrator is not born, he is made through
training. He said — “The time for inclusion of administrative
science as a subject in universities has now come, specially when the
State is playing a bigger and bigger role in the national life of its
people and when India and most other nations of Common
Wealth need highly trained public services. We need adminis-
trators who are flexible, not rigid, and human, not callous. We
need an administrator who is not only a Government servant, but
also, a servant of the public.”^
(7) Government and Private Colleges : The Commission
has suggested to establish a separate Directorate for College
Education at Government level. For private colleges, afliliation is
not the right but it is earned. So this tradition should be
maintained.
1. Hindustan Times— Dated 5. 1. 1967.
Education for Agricultun
The Education Commission has laid much emphasis o
agriculture. It is in favour of establishing one Agriculture
University in each State. There should be a balance betwee:
teaching, research and extension.
We all realize that we are facing the food problem to daj
We have to beg for food and we want to eradicate hunger fror
our country. The fact is that we can solve our food problen
with more production. Agriculture and its education is a mus
for the country’s five lakhs villages.
Therefore, the Commission stresses on the education fo
agriculture. Following are the important recommendations »
this connection.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) Agricultural Universities : At least one agricultural
university should be eshalished in each State.
1. These universities should extend their scope of studies to
cover a wide range of specialished courses to suit the
needs of the time.
2. A clear delineation of responsibilities between Agricult-
ural Universities and the State Departments of
Agricultural is necessary.
3. Post-graduate work should become a distinctive features
of Agricultural Universities which should be staffed with
adequately trained personnel.
4. Central Research Institute like the lARF, IVRP, NDRI^
and ICAR^ and the Agricultural Universities would
1. Indian Agricultural Research Institute.
2. Indian Veterinary Research Institute.
3. National Dairy Research Institute.
4. Indira Council of Agricultural Research.
Education /or Agriculture 103
constitute suitable centres for strong post-graduate
schools in agriculture.
5. Talent from as many fields as possible should be har-
nessed to the betterment of agricultural research and
education.
6. Each university should have a well-equipped library with
adequate staff.
7. Co-ordinated, problem and production oriented research
projects recently evolved by the JCAR should be develop-
ed further.
8. Duration of first degree course should ordinarily be five
years, after ten years’ schooling.
9. Teachers : — For as many of the staff members as possi-
ble, there should be integrated assignments between
class-room teaching and laboratory research, experi-
mental research and work in the field with rural people.
10. The UGC scales of pay should be extended to Agri.
cultural Universities also. Other conditions should be
made attractive.
11. The strength of any faculty should be determined by
needs and quality of staff and not by any rigid hierarchy,
12. The faculties should have reasonable academic freedom.
13. External examination should be reduced in importance
and abolished as early as possible.
14. A large scale programme of teachers training should be
undertaken in 5 or 6 existing high quality centres offering
attractive scholarships to graduates of science and
Agriculture.
15. Students : — Scholarships awarded should cover not less
than 25% of the students in Agricultural Universities.
16. Farm -.—Well-managed farms, about 1,000 acres in size
with not less than 500 acres of cultivated area, should
be attached to every agricultural university.
17. Internship : — Possibilities of providing one year intern-
ship on a well managed state university demonstration
farm before awarding the degree to the students should
be explored.
18. Number, Size and Organisation In the process of esta-
blishing one agricultural university in each State, the
io4 Kothari Commission
possibilities of converting into agricultural universities
should also be studied.
19. While some experimentation should be allowed, it is
essential that all agricultural universities should confirm
to some important principles such as, being single
campus universities without any affiliated colleges. If
for any exceptional reasons, the university should take
over the responsibility for colleges outside its campus,
they should be made constituent colleges under a unified
administration.
(2) Contribution of other Universities for the Development
of Agriculture : — Kothari commission says. Agricultural
universities can and will undoubtedly play a leading
role in the development of education for agriculture.
But that is not enough. We would like to, urge that
the development of agricultural education should be a
national concern and should be regarded as a responsi-
bility of the university system as a whole.
1. Other universities wishing to introduce agricultural
studies should be given all assistance.
2. An academic relationship between some of the agricul-
tural universities and the IITs should be developed.
This can take the form, among other things, of an
exchange of students of staff, and arranging common
programme of study and research.
3. The possibility of organizing agricultural faculties in one
or two of the IITs and in some leading universities
should be explored.
(3) Agriculture Colleges : ( 1) New agricultural colleges
should not be established and the training of undergradute and
post-graduates in agriculture should be done in agricultural
universities. (2) Where agricultural colleges are constituent
colleges of a universities, they should be assisted to develop strong
agricultural universities. (3) Every agricultural colleges should
have a well-managed farm of at least 200 acres. (4) Quinquennial
inspections of agricultural colleges'jointly by ICAR and UGC
should be undertaken, and such colleges as do not come up to
the requisite standards should be disaffiliated. Some of the
courses may be converted to offer courses at a higher technician
level instead of a degree.
Education for Agriculture 105
(4) Agricultral Polytechnics : (1) Agricultural poly-
technics at post-matriculation level should be organized on prio-
rity basis. These should be attached to agricultural universities
and be large institutions with enrolment around 1,000 students. To
meet immidiate needs. Courses may be added to existing poly-
technics located predominantly in rural areas. (2) The polytechnics
should be multipurpose institutions providing training for
imparting the wide range of skills needed in agriculture and allied
fields. In course of time, the polytechnics should offer short
condensed courses, particularly for the young farmers and also of
special interest to girls and women in rural areas. (3) Attractive
scales of pay and adequate qualifications should be prescribed
for the staff of these polytechnics.
(5) Agricultural Education in Schools : (1) Attempts to train
for vocational competance in farming through formal schooling
in agriculture at primary and lower secondary levels have failed
and further efforts should be held in abeyance. (2) Instead of any
narrow vocational training, the school should impart a sound
general education with particular emphasis on mathematics and
science, as the best preparation for coping with the inevitable
rapid changes characterizing our future agriculture. (3) The
proposal for setting up a large number of Junior Agricultural
Schools is beset with several difficulties and may fail to serve its
objectives. It should be abandoned.
C6) Agricultural Education as a Part of General Education :
(1) In all primary schools including those in urban areas, some
orientation to agriculture should form an integral part of general
education. (2) Agriculture should also be made an important
part of the work-experience at the school stage. (3) Undergradu-
ate and postgraduate courses in the colleges and universities
should give prominence to orientation to rural and agricultural
problems, UGC and other authorities should take suitable steps
in this regard. (4) Similar orientation in agriculture and rural
problems should be introduced in all teacher-training
programmes.
(7) Extension Programme : (1) In raising the professional
and teachnical competence of VLWs^ and of the specialists who
support them, the agricultural university and polytechnics should
render all necessary assistance by making available the specialist
1. Village Levels Workers,
iC6 Kothari commission
staff and by organizing special courses. (2) When the proposed
separation of supply services from the extension work takes
place, the extension part of it should be transferred to the agri-
cultural university maintaining, at the sametime, closest liason
between extension work, supply and other programme services of
the department of agriculture. (3) The target should be to set up
at least one primary extension centre in every community develop-
ment block for the purpose of extension work, within a cycling
distance of the area served. There should be trained personnel
in the centres. (4) Greater use should be made of successful
farmers in the carrying out extension work in education. (5) The
individual village farmers attending courses at primary extension
centres should be encouraged to start Farmer's Study Circles in
their villages. (6) Fullest use should also be made of radio, films
and other audio-visual aids in educating farmers and the rural
community.
(8) Manpower needs : Steps should be taken for preparing
more accurate esiimates of the requirements of manpower in
agricultural development.
(9) The Role of ICAR and UGC : (1) Responsibility for
ensuring that agricultural education is launched on the basis of
an integrated approach to teaching, research and extension can
best be carried out by ICAR. (2) There should be some overlap
in membership of the UGC and the above Standing Committee
and common programme should be evolved for the development
of higher education in agriculture.
2. THE EVALUATION
The Education Commission has rightly suggested that an
Agricultural University should be set up in every State. When
so much emphasis is laid on maximising farm output, it is
essential that steps should be taken to impart agricultural know-
ledge based on the latest scientific research. At present India
has made marked progress in the direction of industrialization
and other big projects but in the matter of food, it is lagging
behind.^
The stress laid by the Commission on the Importance of
agriculture education and the emphasis on the study of science
with more pronounced vocational basis at the secondry school
1. Search Light— July 3, 1966
Education for Agriculture 10^
level are according to educationists here symbolic of the Com-
mission’s realistic approach to the problems of Indian Education.
Every body here agrees to the point that work-experience and
social service must form the integral part of general education.
This reading of the Education Commisson has special signifi-
cance in Kerala where educated unemployment is the greatest^.
For agricultural education, the Commission has suggested
that the existing well equipped agricultural colleges should be
converted into Agricultural Universities. They should impart
courses on the diploma and degree level. Side by side they should
also conduct short intensive courses for specific purpose for the
benefit of farmers. The existing agricultural primary schools and
high schools should be converted into schools of general education
with a bias towards agriculture. The Commission has discovered
that agriculture education on the school level has not been very
successful; but some work of this type under the subject of work-
experience should be included as a part of general education in
both rural and urban schools for all pupils irrespective of their
future courses. The statement that school education in Agriculture
has failed will need greater scrutiny, before a firm policy in this
matter is decided®.
(1) Need of Radical Change : Dr. D. S. Kothari says — “In
a rapidly changing world of today, educational policies should
also have a built in flexibility, so that it could adjust to the chang-
ing circumstances. “This is possible only if we remove the rigidit)
in°the present day educational pattern. There should be dost
contacts between engineering and agriculture faculties. Today^
most of the top Indian universities have no faculties oj
agriculture. Such faculties are most important both for the devel-
opment of education and research in agriculture and for providing
to the future leaders and administrators a feel of the basic
problems of the country’s agriculture”.®
(2) Social Service by Agricultural Graduates : h/k, V. P.
Naik has asked the students of agricultural colleges to strive hard
1 Amrita Bazar Patrika— July 17. 1966.
2 Dr G S. Khair— The Education Commission— Some Outstandini
Features-The Progress of Education. Poona Vol. XU No. 5 De<
Page 173.
3. Hindustan Times— March 10, 1967.
108 iCothari Commission
to equip themselves during their studies so that they could face
the problems properly when they left the colleges. They should
not remain content with getting some information during their
college days, but try to acquire knowledge which they could put
into practice later for the benefit of the country. Institutions like
agricultural schools and colleges were closely linked with human
welfare and therefore, those who acquired knowledge from such
institutions should move into the rural areas and try to bring
about a revolution in the field of agriculture.
Referring to the attempts now being made by the country to
import food grains from foreign countries, it would be better to
starve in self-respect rather than depend on others for food.
Attempt should be made by the educated class, kisaiis and others
to bring out a revolution in agriculture. Nearly 80 percent of the
basic needs of the people, depended on agriculture. Unless
agricultural production was substantially increased, India could
not maintain her self-respect.^
1. Hindustan Times — Jan. 1. 1967,
Vocational, Technical and
Engineering Education
16
A concerted and sustained programme is needed to ensure
that by 1986, some 20% of all enrolments at the lower secon-
dary level and some 50% beyond class X are in part-time or full-
time vocational and professional courses.
The Commission stressed that vocational education cour-
ses at school stage should be predominantly terminal in character
with adequate opportunities for the exceptionally gifted child to
rejoin the main stream move higher through further study.
I. THE RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) Training Semi-skilled Workers— (1) There should be a
further expension of facilities in IITs., beginning by at least a
doubling of available places in the Fourth Plan. The minimum
admission age should be gradually lowered to 14, with suitable
adjustments in courses. (2) Junior Technical School should be
renamed. Technical High Schools should offer courses clearly
terminal in character. There should be greater use of available
time to meet the requirements of the Apprenticeship Act. Enough
flexibility and experimentation should be permitted in the or-
ganisation of various courses. (3) Training in ITIs and technical
schools must be production oriented. (4) Skilled Workers’
training courses with every requirements below class X should
also be attached to polytechnics to make better use of existing
facilities. (5) Facilities for vocational and technical training for
school leavers entering employment should be increased by
Part-time Day release, Correspondence, Sandwich or Short
intensive ’course basis. Rigidity of approach in the organisation
of these courses should be avoided.
(2) Technicians’ Training— The over-all ratio of engineers
to technicians should be raised from the present figure of 1 : 1-4
to 1 : 2-5 by 1975 and to 1 : 3 or 4 by 1986. (2) Courses for
training of technicians should be revised in the light of perioriic
1 1 0 Kothari Commission
investigations to be carried out in co-operation with industry,
aimed at job analysis and specifications in terms of levels and
clusters of skills and responsibilities for technicians. (3) Diploma
training should become more practical by including industrial
experience. This practical training should be of a project or
problem oriented type — (4) Polytechnics should be located only
in industrial areas, while those already functioning in rural areas
should develop courses allied to agriculture and agro-industries.
(5) Teachers for polytechnics should be increasingly recruited
from industry, by relaxing, if necessary, academic qualification
requirements. Salaries should not be linked to academic quali-
fications only, (6) To give training in as near realistic conditions
as possible vacations should be used by the students and staff to
do production work on simple tools either for equipping secon-
dary schools for sale. (7) Teaching of science and mathematics
in polytechnics should be strengthened particulary in the first
two years. Technicians Courses should included introduction to
industrial psychology and management, costing and estimation—
(8) Polytechnics should increasingly adopt sandwich type courses
in co-operation with industry — (9) In view of low mobility of
diploma-holders in the country the 4th and 5th Plans should be
designated largely with local requirements in view, keeping at
the same time, a watchful eye on total national needs. (lO)
Courses of special interest to girls should be offered in all
polytechnics at both the certificate and diploma levels and girls
completing the lower secondary course should be encouraged to
take them up. (11) Every effort must be made to reduce the
present high wastage rates in polytechnics to a minimum and
to expand existing polytechnics to their optimum size. (12)
Selected polytechnics should provide post-diploma courses for
technicians with some years of experience in industy to quality
at higher level technicians.
(3) Other Vocational Education - (1) At the higher secondary
level (Classes XI and XII) alongside the polytechnics, there is
considerable scope for starting a range of interesting courses in
commercial, clerical, scientific and industrial trades and in areas
of special interest of girls. This should be fully exploited. (2)
Products of Technical High Schools and Polytechnics should be
encouraged to set up small enterprizes of their own or to join
together with others in creating small scale workshops, industries
and services needed in the community.
Vocational, Technical And Engineering Education 111
(4) Education of Engineers : (1) AllTnstitutions not con-
forming to the standards should be improved, converted to insti-
tutions training technicians are closed. (2) For selected branches
of engineering such as a electronics and instrumentation, recruit-
ment of well-qualified B. Sc. students should be encouraged with
courses suitably adjusted. (3) Anomalies in the scales of pay
among statf members in science, technology faculties in
engineering institutions should be removed. (4) Practical training
for full time degree students should commence from the third
year of the course, and should be properly prepared and super-
vised in co-operation with the industry. Wherever possible
sandwich type of courses should be adopted. (5) Workshop
practice should be more production oriented. (6) Courses at both
degree and diploma level should be diversified to meet the
changing needs. (7) For colleges and institutes of technology to
become more concerned with the needs of industry, research design
projects sponsored either by industry or Government should be
made a part of the curriculum. (8) Syllabus should be continual-
ly revised in consultation with expert committees, carefully avoi-
ding and rigid conformity. (9) Development of courses and
manpower estimates in new fields such as electronics, instruments
technology including automation, chemical technology, aero-
nautics, astronaantics, and nuclear power generation should be
carefully planned in advance. (10) Teachers should be allowed
to undertake consultancy for industry. Wide spread summer
institutes should be organised, (II) Suitable salary scales should
be offered to make the proffession attractive and to ensure that
well qualified engineers may work in teaching and research for
significant periods in their careers. (12) Institute of TechnologJ'
should undertake large scale teacher’s training programmes for
graduate and postgraduate students All such courses should
include a study of a second modern ‘world language’ such as
Russian or German. The scheme for centres of advanced study
should be extended to cover technology field also. (13) Fre-
quent transfers of teachers and principals in Government colleges
for other than professional reasons must be stopped. (14) Special
consideration should be paid for the timely release of foreign
exchange and the stock-piling of essential equipment. (15) Poly-
technics should be discouraged from acquiring sophisticated
eqnipment which is used for only a few days in the year. (16)
Institutions should be encouraged to manufacture prototype sub-
112 Kothari Commission
stitutes for imported items of equipment, (17) Admission require-
ments to these courses should include at least one year’s ex-
perience within some industry. (18) Reasearch at this level
should be diverted towards problem of industry. Large numbers
of those taking up post-graduate courses should be sponsered by
industry. (19) A regular doctorate for professional development
work within industry in addition to a Ph. D. research degree
should be created. (20) Indiscriminate proliferation of courses
should be avoided and location of highly specialised courses
should be determined at the national level. (21) The practice
of levying capitation fee for awarding seats in engineering
colleges should be stopped.
(5) Manpower Requirements — (1) There is need for rigorous
and more refined studies for estimating technical manpower
requirements at all levels. (2) For the immediate future, attention
should be given to (he elimination of present high wastage rates
at all levels and to improvement in quality of instruction offered.
Existing marked variations in the socio-economic background
of student in technical institutions can be reduced by a greater
equalization of educational attainments in secondary schools
between urban and rural areas and by adoption of better ad-
mission tests.
(6) Medium Education : At the secondary and polytechnic
stage, the regional language should be the medium of instruction.
Vigorous action is required for the preparation of good technical
text-books in regional languages.
(7) Practical Training : Industrial Concerns or Departments
fleeted under the Central Government Practical Training Scheme
as also the trainees, should be carefully chosen.
(8) Co-operation with Industry : A Central Scheme of sub-
sidy to industrial concerns providing training facilities should be
started. Suitable qualified training officers should be posted to
such industry or groups of industries.
(9) Professional Societies : Adequate safe-guards have to
be devised to ensure that requisite standards are maintained by
the professional bodies in all the examinations conducted by them.
The societies should also be associated with the part-time techni-
cal courses at higher secondary level.
(10) Corresponding Course : An immediate beginning should
be made to develop a wide range of vocational and technical
Vocational, Technical and Engineering Education
113
courses through correspondence. However, before this medium
could be adopted extensively, very careful preparation and testing
would be required.
(11) Administration— (1) UGC type organisation for techni-
cal education with a full-time chairman should be set up with
adequate representation from UGC, Professional bodies, indus-
try and concerned Ministries. (2) The institutes of Technology
and comparable institutions should be given full University
status, while relating their individual names and characteristics.
(3) As part of Board of School Education, Directorates of
Technical Education should be set up at the State level with
adequate powers among other things for recruitment of staff,
thus removing a number of procedural delays. (4) Chairman of
Boards of Governors of Regional Engineering Colleges
should be drawn from a panel of distinguished educationists.
(5) Principals of Colleges should have among other powers full
discretion in matters relating to the building up of edu-
cational facilities in their institutions within financial ceiling and
policy guide lines.
2. THE EVALUATION
The Commission has recommended various points of view
to re-orient Technical and Vocational education. Technical and
Vocational education is the base of our national development.
The main purpose of our education is to develop attitudes. The
commission has tried to establish ideas of productivity and deve-
loping attitudes side by side.
Following are the essential points which are thought over
by various scholars and eminent persons in the related field.
(1) Closer Links between Industry and Research : Mr. G. L.
Mehta^ called for closer co-operation between industry and tech-
nological institutions and research centres for economic growth.
India’s basic problem was not such the poverty of natural resour-
ces or lack of capital and foreign exchange as under development
of human capacities. It was grave error to under-estimate the
importance of the human being in this age of automation. With
the transformation of a stagnant economy brought about by tech-
nological changes and pointed out how the demarcation between
science and industry had gradually disappeared over the last cen-
tury and a half.
1, Chairman, Indian Investment Centre.
114 Kothari Commission
Indian industry was slowly becoming conscious of the impor-
tance and utility of technology and research. For nearly two
decades entrepreneurs had little incentive for improving elBciency
or reducing costs because their energies were directed towards
obtaining licences and fulfilling ofiBcial conditions rather than
improving productivity. The technologist and the technician
have yet to win recognition and attain their place in India’s
industrial structure.
(2) Preparation of the Attitudes : Technology was not
simply a matter of some contrivances and devices and tools for
ostentation. It could save men from drudgery, obviate the need
for employment under dirty and humiliating conditions, ensure
safety and security and provide more leisure and scope for crea-
tiveness.
Not merely techniques and skills, but attitudes of mind were
also essential for advancement. In the ultimate analysis it was
man rather than money that could and even for the exploitation ^
of industrial resources it was the initative, enterprise and co-ope-
ration of men which were vital.
(3) Significant Expansion : Technical education recorded
‘significant expansion’ during the third plan and admission in
1965-66 were of the order of 23,000 in Degree courses and 43,000
in Diploma courses. About 10,100 graduates and 17,500 diploma
holders passed out of technical institutions during the year.
Technical education is given a tertiary place in the above
list. That is why the technical education is the back bone of
our country’s development. Through that “spiritual vaccum” in
which young people found themselves and said that the old
religious discipline was fast losing its hold on the people whif
they had not imbibed in the real sense the scientific discipline o
today. Without generating the hopes and ideals and generou
enthusiasm which were the privilege of youth, no changes in thi
machanism of the educational system could help. Unfortunately
the sense of social movement, of a large traditionally guided anc
convention-ridden country building itself up deliberately anc
with a sense of large purpose seemed to be all put lost. The need
was to generate a new momentum and a sense of direction.
Science Education and
Research
The Commission has devoted a special chapter to the problem
of Science Education. According to J. Robert Oppenheimer —
Tt is in this high-altitude survey that one sees the general
surprising quantitative features that distinguish our time. This
is where the listings of science endowments and laboratories
and boofo published show up ; this is where we learn that the
arts and sciences are flourishing on a world-wide scale. But there
are some odd features as well ; the superhighways, of massive
achievement and mass culture, seem to have little connection with
the villages, the small and the intimate. The superhighways start
anywhere, end anywhere, and sometimes appear almost by. design
to disrupt the quiet of the villages of old ways.
In the natural sciences there are and have been and the likely
to continue to be heroic days. Discovery follows discovery, radical
ways of thinking unfamiliar to common sense and connected with
it by decades or centuries of increasings specialised and unfamiliar
experience. In any science there is harmony between practi-
tioners. Whether he is part of a team or solitary in his own study,
the scientist, as a professional, is a number of a community. This
experience will make him acutely aware of how limited, bow
inadequate, how precious is this condition of his life ; for in his
relations with a wider society, there will be neither the sense of
community nor of objective understanding.
The specialization of science is an inevitable accompaniment
of progress ; yet it is full of dangers, and it is cruelly wasteful.
And this is one reason why scientists belong in universities ; where
in teaching, in the association of scholars and in the friendship of
teachers and taught, the narrowness of scientific life can best be
moderated and scientific discoveries find their way into the wider
life of man.’^
b Hindustan Times— Dated 5. 3. 1967,
116 Kothari Commission
I. THE recommendations
(1) General Principles : The progress, welfare and security
of the nation depends critically on a rapid, planned and sustained
growth in the quality and extent of education and research in
science and technology. Following measures should be adopted
to make rapid progress : —
1. A rigorously selective approach has to be adopted.
2. In post-graduate studies and research, the standards of
attainment must bear international comparision through
careful selection of the subjects of study.
3. We should determine our priorities and programmes in
education and research on the basis of hard 'indigenous'
thinking and need, and not follow the fashion set by
other countries whether highly ‘advanced’ or not.
4. The development of science must derive its ‘nourishment’
from our cultural and spiritual heritage and not by-pass
it.
5. The need from the earliest stage of science education for
a proper understanding of the basic principles and the
process of scientific abstract abstraction and creative
thinking must be emphasized.
(2) Science. Education : (1) Apart from improving the
standards of the post-graduate courses, the post-graduate enrol-
ment in science and mathematics need be expanded several fold
in coming decades to meet the demands of rapidly expanding
secondary and higher education and of research and industry.
(2) It is necessary to develop a number of centres of Advanced
Study in Science and Mathematics with adequate staff having the
convention of visiting professors, (3) The regional imbalances
in the development of science education should be reduced be
minimum. This education should be related to economic growth.
(4) There is urgent need to revise drastically the under-graduate
and post-graduate curriculum in science. (5) In science depart-
ments a proper balance between experimental and theoretical
aspects should be maintained. (6) There should be well equipped
workshops in every college and university department of science.
(7) Students in science subjects should have some knowledge of
the theory of errors, basic statistical concepts, and statistical
design of experiments. (8) Apart from the evaluation of class
records and the experiments performed by students, there need be
Science fiducation and Research il7
no pratical examinations as part of the final lamination. (9)
There is urgent need to introduce an element of flexibility and
innovation in the organisation of courses for the Master’s degree.
Combination courses consisting of, one major subject and one
subsidiary subject should be provided, (10) It will be great
advantage if major departments in life-sciences have on their
academic staff a small number of physical scientists (including
Mathematicians) specially selected for their interest in the study
of biological phenomena. (11) The need of the day is to bring
science and technology closer together in our educational system.
(12) Apart from the regular two-year M. Sc. courses, there is
need to provide one year courses or of even shorter period, for
specialised training in subjects relevant to pressent scientific,
industrial and other needs. (13) It would be desirable for univer-
sities and engineering institutions to enrol qualified industrial
workers for evening and correspondence courses. Special courses
other than regular diplomas, should also be organised. (14) There
is need for the introduction of a new degree beyond the M. Sc.
stage. The course should include with advantage, on an optional
basis, elements of pedagogy. (15) The programme of the summer
science institutes bring together, in active participation, school
and college teachers and leading university professors. (16) The
lUB and UGC should take a lead to ensure that, by the end of
the Fourth Plan, most of the books required at the undergraduate
level and considerable number at the postgraduate level are pro-
duced in the country. (17) Steps should be taken for the evalua-
tion of a scientific terminology in Indian languages.
(3) Investment in Research : In the industrially advanced
countries the growth of investment in research and development
and of manpower engaged in these activities has surpassed all
expectations. The Indian expenditure on Research Development
is 0-3% of the GNP.. Our efforts will have to be stepped up in
this matter.
(4) University Research in Science : (1) The creative scien-
tists and engineer of a country are its most precious and scarce
assets and should find place in universities where there ‘multi-
plies effect’ is generally maximum : they contribute not only to
scientific research but to the building up of new talent. (2) It is
important that more and more university people that is teachers
and students- should perform more and more research work of
1 1 8 Kothari Commission
a better and still quality. As an ultimate goal, every univei
research should become a teacher and every teacher, a researc
(3) Publication of qualitative research, apart from good teac
ability, should become one of the basic criteria for advancer
of teachers in their university career, (4) Wherever practici
active scientists in the CSIR, AEC and other research institul
outside the university system should be invited and induce
participate in teaching and research work, full-time or part*
for short or long periods. (5) It should be made possibk
selected post-graduate students to spend, during their course w
a term or two in another university or institution specializin
the subject of their interest. (6) The UGC scheme of assis
teachers, research workers, and laboratory technicians to ’
universities and research institutions for short periods (a
weeks to a few months) should be considerably expanded. f7)
development of team-work is an essential condition for
improvement of the quality of university. (8) The number
research studies under the supervision of the head of the depi
ment or any other teacher should be limited. Research stude
should also be assigned to younger members of the staff. (9) 1
qualification for Ph. D., enrolment used be up-graded. We sho
encourage research minded engineering graduates to go in direc
for Ph. D in Mathematics, Physics and other science subjects.
(5) Mathematics : It is important that a deliberate eff
is made to place India on the “World Map of Mathematics” wi
in the next two decades or so. Advanced Centres of Study
Mathematics for upgrading the knowledge and understanding
school and college teachers should be established.
1. University department of mathematics should take in
rest in Programmed Learning.
2. One or two special secondary schools for pupils wi
unusual mathematical ability should be up in the ne
future,
3. A special effort should be made by the UGC to provi
computation, installations ndatraining in programnn
on a selective basis in the universities.
4. It would be desirable to support energetically and dev
lop one or two active centres for the study of brain ar
psychosomatic phenomena, using modern techniques at
also drawing upon past Indian experience in this
which even to-day in some ways is of great significanc
Science Education and Research 11 !
(6) Equipment : (I) Measure will have to be found fo]
efficient use of existing equipment and only such equipment ai
cannot be produced within the country and whose import is in-
escapable should be improved. (2) The UGC and the CSIR
should actively encourage and support some of the universities anc
national laboratories to organize instrument calibration and repaii
service for the general use of the universities. Training of labo-
ratory technicians should receive high priority. (3) A special unit
should be set up to study and do research in laboratory design.
(7) Administration of Science Departments : The administra-
tion of science departments needs be radically reorganized withou
delay. If it is to make the fullest use of its resources, it is necessar}
to associate its staff with administration and decision-making ir
the department.
(8) Pure and Applied Research : (I) Today, with the advance
of science and technology, the distinction between pure and appli-
ed research between a research scientist and a research engineer
has become artificial, and in service fields (e. g., electronics) it
has almost disappeared. Applied work such as developing
important new techniques (new for the country) or designing and
fabricating special instruments or apparatus should receive
proper recognition and it should be made possible for such work
to earn Ph.D. awards. (2) Left to itself, there is almost always
a tendency for research (even in project oriented laboratories) to
become purer and purer. The technical and research institutes
should place special emphasis on applied and industrial research.
(9) Expenditure on University Research— (1) By the end of
the decade, some-time like a quarter of the total university ex-
penditure should be devoted to research. (2) It would be desirable
that in the early stages the UGC makes separate alloctions to
the universities for research purposes. (3) A related matter of
great importance is the provision of adequate foreign exchange.
(10) Basic Research Out-side the Universities ; At present
there are a number of institutions in the country which devote
themselves for university type of research but function outside the
university system. A serious effort should be made to bring them
within the universities, or at any rate, to link them intimately with
the universities.
(11) Brain Drain : A considerable proportion of those who
l20 Kothari Commissioii
go abroad tend to say indefinitely and a sizeable number accept
foreign nationality. The migration is largely to the U. S. A. All
those who go out of India are not necessarily first rate scientists,
nor are they of any critical importance to the country’s require-
ments. But the problem is of sufficient importance to merit a
close and systematic study.
(12) Fellowship for Overseas Training ; Apart from fellow-
ships awarded by foreign agencies, there is a real need for insti-
tution by the Government of a limited number of research
fellowships, say about 100, to be awarded every year for study
and research abroad. These fellowship should be awarded to
persons of outstanding ability and there should be some form of
‘bonding’ for them to return to their country.
(13) National Science Policy — It is essential to have an ad-
visory body which should have on it, besides heads of major
agencies concerned with scientific research, persons who have a
high standing and regard to their profession and who inspire
general — confidence a proportion of these members should be
distinguished young scientists in their thirties, x X X It should
also review continuously the national research policy situation.
(2) Bodies concerned with science policy and implementations
and which have executive and managerial functions requiring
detailed and expert examination of diverse issues should ordinari-
ly have professional scientists, engineers or science administrators
of high standing as their chairman. (3) It should be a major
task of the national research policy, and policies of the univer-
sities to provide a ‘climate’ conductive to research, and to prevent
and eliminated, through energetic and public measures all dangers
and infirngements of autonomy and freedom of action in research.
(4) In determining our priorities for research, we should be
guided by our own national needs and not be undually influence’d
by what may happen to be the current fashion in science.
114) Science Academy : (1) In India the role of a National
Academy is performed partly by the National Institute of Sciences.
However, it may need some drastic reorgnization, if the institute
is to exercise a vigorous leadership in science and play a more
significant role in the scientific activities of the nation. (2) India
is almost the solitary case of a country which is not represented
on the ICSU by a professional Academy but by the Government.
This function should be a responsibility to the Academy.
Science Education and Research l2l
2. THE EVALUATION
According to Dr. G. S. Khair — The modern society and
India cannot afford to neglect this branch of discipline. The
progress and advance in the teaching of science in other countries
should be carefully watched and our courses and libraries should
be re-organised to bring this education as up to date as possible.^
The Commission has emphasised the utilization of scientific
manpower, science from earlier stage, special courses and special
responsibilities. The Commission has also stressed on books,
correspondence courses, part-time and own-time education, etc.
The Education Commission’s report had sought to lay em-
phasis on science education. To meet the needs of our developing
economy; such an orientation is a fundamental requirement. Un-
fortunately however science education has been on the decline
during the last five or six years.
Enrolment for science subjects so the Delhi University has
declined from 12'04 percent in 1961-62 to I0'6 percent in 1964-65.
During this period however, science enrolment in the country as
a whole rose from 29'2, to 3T3, per cent. During the last two
years, the picture has not changed. Science enrolment has failed
to keep peace with the increase in the total enrolment in the
university.
There has been an encouraging growth of scientific and techni-
cal publications in India during the last years. The percentage
break up is —
English 57'2
Hindi
14-4
Marathi 4’7
Bengali
4-5
Tamil 4-2
Gujrati
4-2
Other Language— 3-00
The Commission desires that much progress should be made
in this field.®
The Advisory Committees on Science Education should be
set up according to the commission. But we feel that these
Advisory Committees are of no use and these are expensive also.
Seminar system should be adopted instead of setting up an
advisory board.
j - Khair — The Education Commission : Some Out-standing
Features. '‘TJw progress of Education" Poona. Vol. XLI No. 5. December
1.66. Page— 171. _
2. Hindustan Times— Dated Feb. 16, iVO/.
122 Kothari Commission
Research in Science is the most important work in a university
Research in Science is an expensive task, therefore, the Commis
sion has rightly suggested that attractive scholarships and grani
should be given to those who are interested in scientific research.
“If science is to be pursued with full vigour and zest an
is to become a mighty force in Indian renaissance, it mui
derive its nourishment from our cultural and spiritual heritag
and not bypass it. Science must become an integral part of oi
cultural and spiritual heritage”^ It is possible when scienc
takes root in native soil and is no longer an exotic plant, il
growth pattern may be visibly influenced by those feature
which have been characteristic of Indian philosophic thougli
and civilization. Part of the science ‘fashion’ may be set by u
reflecting Indian ethics and values judgments. Let us remembe
that thinking and creativity have a considerable element of th
pre-conscious, the Commission comments.
1, Kothari, D. S. (Dr.) — Science Education.
Adult Education
18
Adult education is by nature a voluntary activity ; the basic
driving force is, therefore, the individual motivation of the adult.
It may be clear to planners, educators and administrators that
national security and integration, productivity and population
control, health and general welfare of the people would improve
through wide-spread adult education and training. This may not
be so immediately apparent to the individual farmer or urban
dweller that he should be willing to sacrifice some time in order
to acquire such education. It is essential that the literacy pro-
gramme should be presented in ways which are meaningful to
the adult and related in clear and understandable way to the en-
vironmental conditions in which he lives.
THE RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) Liquidation of Illiteracy— (1) Every possible effort should
be made to eradicate illiteracy from the country as early as
possible and in no part of the country, however backward,
should it take more than 20 years. The national percentage of
literacy should be raised to 60 by 1971 and to 80 by 1976. (2) As
a first step to arrest growth of illiteracy, the following measures
should be taken, (i) Expansion of universal schooling of five
years’ duration to the age group 6—11. (ii) Provision of part-
^ime education to those children of are group 11—14 who either
miss schooling or drop prematurely out of the school, (iii) Pro-
vision of part-time general and vocational education to the
younger adults of the age group 15— 30. (3) For the liquidation
of illiteracy a two-fold strategy comprising the selective approach
and the mass approach should be adopted, (i) Under selective
approach, programmes should be adopted for specified groups of
ddults which could be easily identified controlled and motivated
for intensive literacy work. All commercial or industrial firms,
development projects, public and private sector should be made
124 Kotiiari Commission
responsible for making their employees functionally literate with-
in a period of three years of their employment, (ii) Under mass
approach, all available educated men and women in the country
should be mobilized for raising of force to cambat illiteracy and
utilize it in a well planned literacy compaign. In the organisation
of mass campaign, the teachers, students and ail educational insti-
tutions should be actively involved. All the students up to the
under-graduate classes should be required to teach the adults as a
part of compulsory national service programme. Teachers should
also participate in this programme. The school in particular
should be transformed into Centre of Community life. No literacy
campaign should be launched without careful planning and
preparation. (5) In order to promote literacy among women
condensed courses for women sponsored by the Central Social
Welfare Board should be adopted : appointment of ‘Village
Sisters’ should be encouraged for teaching village women and
organising adult education among local communities. (6) The
mass media of communication should be effectively used as a
powerful instrument for creating the climate and imparting
knowledge and skills necessary for improving quality of work and
standard of life. (7) In order to retain the literacy campaign must
have adequate follow up including further education, the use of
literacy and the production of reading material.
(2) Continuing Education — (1) a parallel part system of
education be created to provide adults with opportunities for
taking the same diplomas and degrees as students in schools
and colleges get. (2) Educational institutions should give the
lead in organizing adhoc courses which will help people to
understand and solve their problems and to acquire wider knowled-
ge and experiences. (3) Further education should be provided
for workers for improving their knowledge and skills, widening
their horizon in life, including in them a sense of responsibility
towards their profession and improving their careers. Special
part-time sandwich courses should be offered to them which
would lead them step by step to higher courses. (4) Special
institutions such as those run by the Central Welfare Board for
Adult Women and the Vidyapeeths in Mysore State should be
established. The existing institutions should be frequently reviewed
in order to enable them to be of service to the rural community.
(3) Correspondence Course — (1) In order to give education
to those who are unable even to attend part time courses^
Adult Education 125
widespread organization of Correspondence Courses should be
organised. (2) Students taking correspondence courses should
be provided opportunities to meet the teachers occasionally ;
they should be given the status of recognised students, and
where possible be attached to some colleges in order to enable
them to make use of the library and other facilities. (3) Corres-
pondence Courses should be supported by well coordinated
Radio and Television programmes. (4) Correspondence Courses
should not be confined to preparing students for the University
degree but should also provide agricultural, industrial and other
workers such special courses of institution as would help them to
improve production. (5) Correspondence courses should be
made available for those who desire to enrich their lives by
studying subjects of cultural and aesthetic value. (6) Correspon-
dence courses should be developed for the teachers in schools to
keep them abreast with new knowledge as well as with new
methods and techniques of teaching. (7) The Ministy of Education
in collaboration with other ministries should establish a National
Council of Home Studies, for the purpose of accrediation and
evaluation of agencies which provide correspondence courses,
identification of the areas in which different types of Corres-
pondence courses would be of benefit, to promote creation of
such courses through proper agencies, and for conducting eva-
luation and research. (8) Opportunity to take examination con-
ducted by Secondary Education Board and Universities in the
country should be made available to those who wish to work on
their own without any assistance.
(4) The Libraries : The recommendations of the Advisory
committee on Libraries relating to the establishment of a net-work
of libraries throughout the country should be implemented. (2)
School libraries should be integrated in the system of Public
libraries and be stocked with reading material of appeal both to
children and neo-literates. (3) The libraries should be dynamic
and set out to educate and attract the adults to use them.
(5) Role of Universities: (1) The Universities in India
should assume larger responsibility for educating
(i) Establishing departments of Adults Educatio ( j
University (did), (ii) Helping in
looms cultural values and community life. (2) In order to have
an efficient machinery for launching
education programmes each university should establish a Board
126 Kothari Commission
of Adult Education with representatives from all departments
concerning adult education programmes. (3) Universities should
be financed and equipped for carrying out the adult education
work.
(6) Organization and Administration : (1) A National Board
of Education representing all relevant Ministries and agencies
should be established, (ij To advise Governments at the Centre
and in the States, on all matters relating to informal adult edu-
cation and training and to draw up plans and programmes for
their consideration, (ii) To promote the establishment, where
needed, of agencies and services for the production of literature
and other teaching material and for coveted training programmes,
(iii) To ensure co-ordination among different Ministries and
official agencies, (iv) To review from time to time the progress
made and to formulate suggestions for change and improvement,
(v) To promote research, investigation and evaluation. (2) Volun-
tary agencies working in the field of the adult education should
be given every encouragement, financial and technical.
The Commission has laid much emphasis on all aspects of
adult education. The Commission is of the opinion that illiteracy
should be eradicated from the country. The Commission has
given a new approach of ‘life-long education’ In the words of
the Commission — “Education does not end with schooling but it
is a life long process. The adult today has need of an under-
standing of the rapidly changing world and the growing complexi-
ties of society. Even those who have had the most sophisticated
education must continue to learn the alternative is obsolescence. ’
Liquidation of iliteracy is an objective, stated by the Com-
mission. T. A. Koshy opined — “There may be many programmes
to achieve this objective. Similarly ‘role of universities in adult
education’ can hardly be termed a “programme.” Organization
and administration are not programmes, though they are necessary
for the implementation of “an effective programme” of adult
education.”^
The slow rate of growth in literacy that did not keep up with
the population increase and resulted in an increase in actual
1. The Commission’s Report, p. 422. , ,
2. T. A. Koshy— ‘The Education Commission and Adult Education
NIE Journal Vol. II, November, 1966, Page 68.
Adult Education . 127
number of illiterates from year to year, is because of the fact that
the programmes were not implemented sincerely, x x x The
Commission has done a service to the nation by according adult
education the place it deserves in the nation's educational system.
The cost involved in implementing the recommendations of the
Commission has not been taken into account. Unless the country
knows what investment is to be made in adult education and
whether the necessary funds would be available or not, it is diffi-
cult to say to what extent the recommendations of the Commis-
sion can be implemented. One thing, however, is clear. A
developing country like India can ill-afford to neglect adult edu-
cation at this critical point in the nation’s life.^
India is passing through the process of social change. This
age is known as transitional period of the nation. To fill the
vacuum, it is necessary to get literate every person of the country.
Adult education has been considered in great details. This problem
has two aspects in India as compared with other advanced coun-
tries. Liquidation of illiteracy is one aspect and education of the
literates is another aspect. There is a strange paradox in the
progress of education during the last 20 years in the field of literacy.
The total number of illiterate persons has increased during the last
10 years although the percentage of literacy has slightly improved.
This phenomenon is due to the fact that constant additions are
being made to the ranks of illiterates owing to the rise in popula-
tion. The task for education is two fold-(i) To educate the existing
illiterates, (ii) and to prevent the addition of new illiterates to their
ranks. A nationwide campaign is necessary for this purpose. The
Commission feels that there should be a Central Board of Adult
Education and Literacy which should be in-charge of liquidating
the nation’s Illiteracy during the next 10 years. It has suggested
that percentage of literacy should rise to 30 during the next 5 years
and to 80 during the next 10 years and the end of 15 years the
nation should be able to achieve complete literacy for the age group
15 to 30. During the last 30 years there have been attempts of
liquidating illiteracy but they have been isolated, sporadic and un-
coordinated, and consquently no substantial progress has been
made although a slight increase in the percentage of literates has
been achieved. The nation ought to take this matter very seriously,
especially the leaders who are incharge of the aflfairs of the nation.
All the resources of the nation in manpower, material, equipment
1. op. cit.
128 Kothari Commission
and funds should be utilised for eradicating illiteracy during the
next 15 years. Employers of factories should co-operate with the
workers in providing them teachers, courses, text books and tests.
Every school, college and university should be a centre of literacy
education. Even the universities should devote some attention to
this aspect of work. From the history of a similar movement
carried on in Russia 30 years ago, it is proved that an all-out
campaign against illiteracy by the whole nation will certainly result
in wiping out this stigma of the nation. Literacy is needed out for
its own sake. It is essential for the improvement of the individual
and for the economic progress of the nation. It is calculated that
in a force of 100 workers about 60 to 70 persons are illiterate.
The consequent effect on production can well be imagined. It is
impossible to carry on economic, social of political progress in a
democracy without a literate population.^
Government’s efforts :
Our Government took various important decisions to promote
adult education. It has decided to start two important centres in
Bombay and Delhi. They provide education to industrial and
potential workers. To start with, about 300 persons are expected
to attend the course. Organised by the Department of Adult
Education of the National Council of Educational Research and
Training, these two centres are being run on project basis. Based
on the expenditure, the department will open 10 similar centres
all over the country. UNESCO has given assistance worth
Rs, 20,000 for the centres at Delhi and Bombay. These centres
provide an integrated and continuing system of basic and develop-
ment education to workers or prospective workers, who have had
little opportunity for education and growth. They collaborate with
local agencies working for education of workers, factories, social
organizations and trade unions.
The course at these centres, of four months duration, cover
reading and writing, simple arithmetic, citizenship, aspects of
life, health and sanitation, general science, elementary history,
geography and general knowledge. Vocational training is also
given. The Commission attaches greater value to educating every
child, young and old person, women etc. so that they may share
the responsibility of national development.
1. Dr. G. S. Khair — ‘The Education Commission. Some Outstanding
Features.’ The Progress of Education, Vol. XLL No. 5 December 1966, page
171-172.
In this chapter the Commission has dealt with the problems
of Educational Administration. There are various problems in
the way to achieve our aims. Apart from teaching, adminis-
trative side is also important and needs improvement.
I. THE RECOMMENDTIONS
(1) Planning— (1) There has been an over-emphasis on the
achievement of target in enrolment and expenditure and there is,
therefore, a need to take a more comprehensive view and evolve
a broader pattern of goals, especially those relating to qualitative
improvement. (2) There should be concentration on a few crucial
programmes. (3) In the existing situation where financial re-
sources are very limited, programmes which call for a determined
effort organisation, talent and hard-work rather than large finan-
cial investment, need greater emphasis'. (4) There should be
deep involvement of the universities, professional organisation,
training colleges, etc., in a periodical evaluation of all major
programmes included in the Plans and in the development of a
large research programme. (5) The Ministry of Education, in
collaboration with the Asian Institute of Educational Planning in
different States should conduct intensive courses for training the
personnel involved in the planning process at different levels.
(6) The UGC should also consider the possibility of setting up
an Advanced Centre for Studies in Educational Planning, Admini-
stration and Finance. (7) The Process of educational planning
in a Federal democracy has to be the right blend of centralization
in the appropriate sectors and especially in administration. One
useful suggestion which can be made in this context is to adopt a
system of priorities at different levels — national, state and local.
(8) School education is predominantly a local-state partnership
and higher education is a Centre-State partnership. It is the
basic principle that should guide the evaluation of the delicate
130 Kothari Commission
balance between centralization and decentralization which our
planning needs.
(2) The Role of Private Enterprise — (1) The future role of
private enterprise in education should broadly be on the following
principles — (i) As most private enterprise has played an impor-
tant role in the development of education in modern India, the
state should make all possible use of the assistance that can come
from the private sector for the development of education, (ii) The
State has now rightly assumed full responsibility to provide all
the needed educational facilities and private enterprise can, there-
fore, have only a limited and minor role.
(3) The Role of Local Authorities : The normal practice
should be that local authority gets the right to administer edu-
cation as a privilege subject to two conditions— good administra-
ation and promoting the cause of education— and that this privi-
lege would be withdrawn if any of these conditions is violated. The
future role of local bodies in education may be defined as
follows:—
1. As an ultimate objective, it is essential that schools and
their local communities should be intimately associated
in the educational process.
2. It would, however, not be proper to press for the univer-
sal and immediate adoption of this principle without refe-
rence to local conditions.
3. The immediate goal in this respect, and this should be
adopted immediately as a national policy in all the States,
is to associate the local communities, namely Village
Panchayat in rural area.s, with their local schools and to
make them responsible for the provision of all the non-
teachers costs with the help, where, necessary of a suitable
grant-in-aid from the State.
4. The ultimate goal to be reached is the establishment, at
the district level of a competent local educational autho-
rity which may be designated as the District School
Board which would be in-charge of all education in the
district below the university level. This should also be
accepted as national policy.
5. In all associations of the local authorities with education,
adequate safeguards should be provided to ensure that
the teachers are not harassed and that they do not get
involve in local factions and politics.
Educational Administration 131
(4) District and Municipal Boards — (1) The jurisdiction of
the District School Board should cover the entire area of the
district with one exception, namely, the big municipalities should
be represented by educationists and concerned Departments. A
senior officer of the State Government should be the whole-time
Secretary of this Board, which should be provided with the
necessary administrative and supervisory staff. (2) The function
of this Board, would cover all school education in the district —
general as well as vocational. It will directly administer all
Government and local authority schools with the district, and
will also remain in charge of giving grant in aid to all private
institutions in the district in accordance with the rules framed by
the State Government for the purpose. (3) It should be a res-
ponsibility of the Board to prepare plans for the development of
school-education within the district and it should also be the
principal agency within the district to develop school education,
the finances and guidance required for the purpose being provided
by the State Government and the State Education Department.
(4) In big towns with a population of one lakh or more, it would
be desirable to establish Municipal School Board on the above
lines, since there would be liable administrative units. The com-
position, powers and responsibilities of these Boards should be
similar to those of District School Boards. (5) Each School
Board will maintain an education fund. The Zila Parishads or
Municipalities will approve the budget of School Boards. They
will also raise the resources expected of them and credit them to
the School Board. In all day to-day administration, the School
Board would be autonomous. The same relation would hold
good between a Municipal School Board and its Municipality.
(6) Recruitments and transfers will be done by special committee
consisting of the Chairman of the Board, its Secretary and District
Education Officer, subject to rules framed by the State Govern-
ment, the general policy being to reduce transfers to the minimum
and to allow teachers to develop loyalties to individual institu-
tions. (7) It may be better in some cases not to burden the
school boards with full administrative responsibility all at once.
Powers may be conferred on a board as it becomes experienced
shows its capacity to exercise them.
(2) The Role of Central Government— (1) Besides institutions
in the scientific and technical sector, it is also necessary for the
132 Kothari Commission
Centre to establish institutions specializing in social sciences
including pedagogical sciences and humanities. These should be
established in close association with the universities as an inte-
gral part of the University system, (2) The Centre can also
develop education in the Union Territories, particularly in Delhi,
to serve as a pace setter for other areas. (3) The Centre should
scout for talent in different fields and make the services of the
best people in the country available to the State Governments
for advice and assistance in all matters. (4) Funds for specific
special programmes in the educational sector within the state
plans may not be earmarked. The total allocation for education,
however, should not be altered without the approval of the
Planning Commission, but within it, the State Governments
should be free to use funds as their disci iption. (5) Considerable
importance should be attached to the expansion of the Central
and the Centrally sponsored sector. It is through this mechanism
that the Centre will be able to stimulate and guide educational
development in the national interest in crucial sector. (6) Educa-
tion should not be fragmented keeping one part in the concurrent
and the other in the State list. In a vast country like ours the
position given to education in the constitution is probably the
best because it provides for a Central leadership of a stimulating
but non-coercive character. The greatest need is for elasticity
and freedom to experiment. (7) An intensive effort should be
made to exploit fully the existing provision of the Constitution
for the development of education of a national educational policy.
The problem may then be reviewed again after ten years.
(6) Ministry of Education — (1) The present practice of
giving the post of Secretary to the Government of India to an
eminent educationist, who is designated as Educational Adviser
to the Government of India and Secretary to the Ministry of
Education should continue. This should be a selection post and
selection should be made from amongest all persons available,
official, non-official, lES, universitymen, etc. It should be a
tenure post given only for six years in the first instance, with an
extension in exceptional cases for three or four years but not
renewable further. (2) About half the posts of additional or joint
Secretaries should be filled by promotion from officers seconded
from the State Education Departments and the remaining half
should be filled from eminent educationists and outstanding
Educational Administration 133
teachers in universities and schools. The term of each tenure
should be five years to be renewable at the most for a second
term. (3) The clearing house function of the Ministry of Educa-
tion need considerable strengthening and expansion. A well-
staffed Division should be created to perform this function on an
adequate scale. (4) The Ministry of Education may set up a
Committee to examine the various types to studies required and
to prepare a programme for action. (5) It is a major responsi-
bility of the Ministry of Education to maintain a good satistical
service for educational planning, policy making and evaluation.
In order that this function, may be discharged properly, the
Statistical Section of Ministry should be reorganised and streng-
thended along the lines recommended. The stafistical units of the
State Departments of Education will have to be reorganised and
strengthened likewise. (6) The Central Advisory Board of Edu-
cation with its standing Committees should be functionally
strengthened.
(7) National Council of Educational Research and Training :
(1) The NCERT should be developed as the principal
technical agency functioning at the national level for the improve-
ment of school education; operating through and in collaboration
with the National Board of School Education, State Departments
Education and their technical agencies like the State Institutes
of Education. (2) The Governing Body of the NCERT should
have an all India character with a majority of non-officials. It
is desirable to have at least one outstanding teacher from secon-
dary schools and a person specialising in primary education,
preferably a primary scoool teacher. (3) The Council should
have its own full-time Dierctor and Joint Director. The Director
should be an eminent educationist in the field and his status
should be that of a Vice-Chancellor. His terms of office should
be five years, renewable for not more than one term. The Joint
Director would be needed mainly for the purpose of assisting
the Director and relieving him of routine administrative matters.
(4) The Central Institute of Education under the NCERT,
should be transferred to Delhi University. (5) It is desirable
that there should be considerable interchange and flow of officers
from NCERT to the State Education Departments and Vice-
(8) Educational Adminisiration at the State Level— (-) It is
134 Kotliari Commission
desirable to create at the State level, some machinery to cO-or-
dinate educational programmes which are spread over a number
of departments and take a unified view for planning and develop-
ment. (2) A Statutory Council of Education should be created
at the state level with the State Minister for Education as the
Chairman. Its membership should include representatives of
universities in the State, all Directors incharge of different
sectors of education and some eminent educationists. Its prin-
cipal functions would to be advise the State Government on all
matters relating to school education, to review educational
developments in the State and do conduct education of pro-
grammes from time to time through suitable agencies. Its annual
report along with its recommendations should be presented to
the State Legislature. (3) A standing Committee at the
officer’s level which would include all State level officers-
in-charge of different sectors of education should meet periodi-
cally under the chairmanship of Educational Secretary. (4) The
Educational Secretary also, like the Educational Adviser of the
Government of India, should be an educational rather than
administrative officers. It will be desirable to make this appoint-
ment a tenure post. (5) The role of the Education-Secretariat
should be to examine educational problems from the adminis-
trative and financial point of view and in the wider context of
government policies of development. It should give the weigh-
tage in the views of Directorate in technical matters and assist
the Director to function as the effective head of the Depart-
ment.
(9) Indian Educational Service : (I. E. S.)— (1) Indian Edu-
cational Service should be service agency to teaching and
research and should consist of person who have teaching ex-
perience with the possibility of the educational administration
returning to teaching and the teacher going over to administration
at least on a tenure assignment. Its method of recruitment
should be as follows, (i) Only one-third of the posts should be
filled by direct recruitment at the level of the junior scale. Even
these selected persons should not be placed directly in adminis-
tration. Their first assignments for a minimum period of
2-3 years should be in teaching, and it is only after this
initiation, that they should be assigned to administration,
(ii) The remaining two thirds of the posts would be filled partly
Educational Administration 135
by direct recruitment and partly by promotion and the level of
senior and higher scale, (iii) Some posts of the lES should be
available for being filled by tenure appointments of teachers for
specified periods. In the same way, some posts in teaching and
research should also be available of tenure appointments for
persons from the lES. (2) As there are insuperable difficulties
the idea of creating a teaching wing in the lES should be aban-
doned. The service should encader only the post of Directors
and officers of the Directorate, District Education Officers and
Headmasters of higher secondary schools in the State, and at the
Centre, Education Officers of the Ministry of Education and
other Ministries and Education Departments of Union territories.
(3) An adequate number of post comparable to the higher scales
of pay in the lES should be created in the universities and colleges
to prevent drain of latent from teaching and research to adminis-
tration. (4) It should be a convention that only about 50% of the
lES officers are assigned to their own State and there should also
be a possibility of inter-State transfers fin addition to deputation
to the Centre). To facilitate this each member of lES should be
required to study and pass, within a given time after recruitment,
a test in two languages : Hindi and one more Indian language
(which is not his mother tongue) to certain prescribed efficiency.
(10) State Educational Service-(l) There should be an ade-
quate number of posts at higher levels, namely, in class I and
class II. The Secretaries of the District School Boards should be
in class I. The District Eduction Inspectors (will be in the lES)
should have adequate assistance from officers of class I and
class II status. In order to attract talented persons, recruitment
is needed at three levels : Assistant Teachers’ Level : Class 11
Level (50%) for freshers and 50% for promotjon. (_) A major
reform now needed is to recognize the State Education Depart-
ments where necessary on the basis of specialized functionaries
to make adequate arrangements for their specialised training with
the help of the universities. (3) To reduce anomalies in the
salaries of the departmental staff and transferability, it is proposed
that-(i) the scale of pay in the teaching and the administrative
wings should be identical, (ii) the scale °i ^ r
mental staff should be correlated with the UGC scales of pay for
university teachers.
(11) Training of Educational Administators—(l) The State
136 Kodiari Commission
Institutes of Education, in collaboration with universities where
necessary, should organise in the service educational programmes
of all the non-gazetted staff on the administrative inspectional
side. In addition, they should also organize conferences, seminars
and workshops for the gazetted staff. (2) The old practice of
giving furlough leave to administrators for undertaking special
studies in educational problems should be revised. (3) Some
incentives should be provided for the officers who improve their
qualifications, materially through programmes of in-service
education.
(12) National Staff College of Educational Administrators—
The Ministry of Education should establish a National Staff
College of Educational Administrators. It should provide in-
service education for all senior officers in the Educational
Service — lES and State Educational Services. It should conduct
two type of courses : a longish induction course for new recruits
and shorter courses of three to six weeks for officers in-service,
It should have a research wing for conducting studies in problems
of educational administration and function as a clearing house of
administrative procedures and practice in the States and Union
Territories. It should also conduct periodical conferences,
seminars and work-shops on matters relating to educational
planning.
(13) Educational Departments — The present position in
most of the States is that Education Departments are under-
staffed because the growth of the departmental staff doest not
precede but follows the growth in the number of educational
institutions ; the norms, fixing the number of officers required are
not even if fixed observed in practice, the expenditure increasing
the departmental staff always has a low priority. The reversal of
these policies is necessary subject to one reservation, viz. it is
better to have a power officer at a higher level and on adequate
scales of pay than a large number of officers at the lower level.
(14) Procedure : There should be a change in the altitudes
of administrators who should cultivate an openness of mind and
a spirit of enquiry rather than a rule of the thumb approach
which tries to stick to the established practices even when they
cease to be meaningful. (2) The practice of holding periodical
reviews say, every three or five years of important administrative
practicies with a view to chopping of dead wood and putting in
Educational Administration \y1
fresh grafts where necessary should be established. (3) Inter-
sevice contracts should be built up and comparative studies in
different States practices in all administrative matters should be
encouraged. Periodical comparative studies in educational
administration which would involve the State Educational Depart-
ments should be made closely. (4) The evolution of the technique
of detailed programming of the plan projects and the training of
officers in them, in the State Institutes of Educational Adminis-
trators. (5) The modern ‘officer-oriented’ system where most of
the work will be done by the officers at their own level with the
help of a small secretariat staff should be adopted.
(15) Education Act : (1) Education should be given a
statutory basis every where and Education Acts should be passed
in the States and Union Territories. There should be comprehen-
sive and consolidated measures which will replace all the
miscellanceous laws which now exist and which will also provide
sive and consolidated measures which will replace all the
a statutory basis for certain important aspects of administration
(e. g., grant-in-aid Code) which now exists merely in the form of
executive orders. (2) The Government of India should issue a
statement on the national policy in education which should
provide guidance to the State Government and the local autho-
rities in preparing and implementing educational plans in their
areas. (3) The possibilities of passing a National Education Act
may also be examined.
2 THE EVALUATION.
The Commission has laid due emphasis on the proper
planning of our educational system. It has rightly considered,
the decentralization and centralization of education.
(1) Educational Planning on District Basis Favoured— The
Education Commission is coverted that educational planning
will have to be reoriented on district basis rather than State basis.
This conclusion is drawn by the Commission after a survey of
education in the country.
A district wise planning is inevitable due to the wide im-
balance that now exists from district to district in the develop-
ment of education. ^ r ,
Thesurvery points out that against the target of enrolment
of 142 per thousand at the lower primary stage (age group of
6-10) there is a wide spectrum of achievement even at the State
level, where the variations range in respect total enrolment of
l38 Kotliari Comraissioil
from 55 in Rajasthan to 140 in Kerala. The same is the case of
girls whose enrolment ranges from 23 in Rajasthan to 130 in
Kerala. The variations between districts are even larger and wider.
So, it is a good suggestion and it would lead to the reformation of
examination and educational pattern.
(2) Educational Administration — The Commission has
suggested various new steps to be followed for reform in educa-
tional administration. There should be proper co-ordination
between the Ministry of Education and the teachers. Similar
should be the case at the State level also. Local Authorities,
District Education Boards and State Boards of Education should
plan education according to the local needs. Proper look-after
should be made in private enterprise because it plays an important
role in spreading education all over the country. National Educa-
tion Board should work as a link and National Staff College for
Educational Administrators should be established to train the
gazetted and non-gazetted oflScers,
(3) Indian Educational Service and State Educational Service :
The Commission has proposed to start Indian Educational Service
and State Education Service. This is a good suggestion is to be
followed. But according to V. V. John^ — “While the Home Mini-
stry in pursuance of a Rajai Sabha resolution continues hopefully
to correspond with State Governments about the formation of an
Indian Educational Service, indications are that the project has
been killed by apathy or hostlitity from several quarters. It is
profitable to identify the nature of this opposition, for it has a
bearing on our attitudes to raising the quality of our education.
There is a certain lack of candour in the Education Com-
mission’s recommendation relating to the formation of an Indian
Educational Service. It has now been disclosed that if the Govern-
ment had not already committed themselves to the formation of
such a Service, the Commission would not have made any recom-
mendation in the matter. One keeps wishing the Commission had
a mind of its own. Its lack of conviction is evident in the tepid
tones of the recommendation and in the fact that the Report
contradicts itself in the process.
On one page of their Report, the Commission sees ‘insupera-
ble difficulties’ in including teaching posts in the lES cadre. But
on an other page they seem to see the absurdity of an educational
1 . V. V. John — ‘Who killed the I. E. S.’ Hindustan Times. 24. 2. 67,
Bducationai Administration l39
Service that has no teachers and suggest that the young recruits
should not be placed straightway in administrative positions with-
out acquiring some teaching experience. Apparently, two or three
years of teaching experience would last the educational bureau-
crats lifetime. If we take the Commission’s recommendations
seriously, what we shall evolve, despite their suggestion that there
should be a periodical intake of mature personnel from the univer-
sities and other sources of recruitment, would be an inferior IAS
in charge of educational administrators.
The Home Ministry does not share this view of how the
Service should be constituted. There has been a progressive evo-
luation in the Ministry’s conception of the service and it could
do with some further evaluation. In the beginning, it was concei-
ved of as a cadre of educational administrators. When the matter
was discussed at a conference of Chief Secretaries of the States
five years ago at least two of them spoke up vehemently for the
inclusion of teaching posts in the cadre. The States thereupon
were given the freedom to include teaching posts in their own
cadre of the lES.
The present thinking in the Ministry is that a certain per-
centage of the cadre could be ‘on deputation’ to teaching. A pure
teaching cadre, it is feared, would be resented by the rest of the
teaching community as the imposition of a new ‘higher caste’
Such resentment is a pure invention of the bureaucratic imagi-
nation. The resentment is against the present situation in our
education departments, under which no teacher can thrive unless
he gives up teaching and takes to administration.
If the dream, now shattered, had come true, the arrange-
ment would have been that no lES man stayed permanently in
administration, but returned to teaching after five or six years
of administration. The objection that a person who has been
away from the classroom and the laboratory that long would
find himself out of touch with his former academic pursuits,
and would be unable to pick up the threads, is queer, for it
discloses an image of the educational administrators which is
highly uncomplimentry. We surely do not want a whole tribe
of educational administrators who have lost touch with academic
work, and would be at serious loss if they returned to the
classroom.
The project trafiBc between the classroom and the admmis-
i40 Kothari Commission
trative office would have ensured healthy developments in our
education. It may be that the keen teacher and scholar may have
no use for administrative positions. It would be well to leave such
spirit alone. But there are in the academic community many
capable ‘organization men’ whose extra academic talents could be
judiciously utilized in educational administration. The lES could
have a use for both types.
But the prospect of such facilities have now vanished. One
of the states has now informed the Home Ministry that it wishes
to encadre only three posts in theJIES, namely the State’s Director
of Education and two Joint Directors. Another State which had
earlier pleaded for a teaching cadre in the IBS, has now opted
out of the whole scheme on the ground of financial exigencies.
Such exigencies do not seem to stand in the way of the State
joining an all-India service in forestry, engineering or medecine’.
Yet another State wanted only residents of the State to be recrui-
ted to its cadre of the lES, and lest it be accused of provincialism,
has explained that with the switch-over to regional languages as
the medium of instruction even in higer education, persons from
other linguistic area will not be able to do effective educational
work in that State.
This argument is being used by other States too. Obviously
no one takes three language formula seriously. It would also
seem inconcevible that recruits to the Educational Service could
be expected to acquire a reasonable proficiency in an Indian
language other than their mother tongue. Such utter lack of faith
in our linguistic prowess is of recent origin and is perhaps justified
by the slowing down of the pace of language studies in our schools
and colleges. But we do not want to reverse this disastrous
trend ?
We seem, meanwhile, to have forgotten the reasons for
which the project of an Indian Educational Service was originally
taken up. One reason was to attract into educationl work
capable young men who otherwise seek jobs in business or to the
administrative services. The other and more serious consideration
was that an Indian Educational Service a teaching elite lable to
transfer from one State to another, or what someone fancifully
called India’s ‘wandering scholars’ — would make a contribution
to national integration. This teaching elite whom the State would
share in common was what the National Integration Committee
Educational Administration 141
had in mind when it suggested the formation of the service, and
when the Chief Ministers’ Conference endorsed the idea in 1961.
That was a time when we thought of education and the world
of learning — as providing the soundest basis on which the unity
of our nation could be built. The growing tendency towards
fragmentation in several of political and administrative decisions,
would now seem to be receiving support from the field of educa-
tion too. Our educational careerists in the different States do not
find the establishment of an all India cardre, an advantage to
themselves. A certain type of political lader also finds such a
service an embarrassment and a hindrance to the pursuit of
parochial policies. And no professional organization of educators
seem to be alive or powerful enough to warn the country of the
grave error we are making.
Educational Finance
20
Our education is not fulfilling its aims properly due to ill-
management and finance. Kothari Commission suggests a radical
change in the out-look of disbursing and allotment of grant-in aid
system. The Commission also suggests the importance of locality
and demands, the local contribution for the development of
education according to local needs. It holds the opinion that the
preparation of a tentative scheme and budget by the Central and
State Governments is necessary for the proper development of
education. The Commission, therefore, deserves the credit for
suggesting the wayout.
f. THE RECOMMENDATIONS.
(1) Total Expenditure on Education : If education is to
develop adequately, educational expenditure in the next 20 years
should raise from Rs. 12 per capita in 1965-66 to Rs. 54 in 1985-
86 (at constant prices). This implies that the educational expen-
diture : which increased from Rs. 1, 114 millions in 1950-51
to Rs. 6000 millions in 1965-66, will further rise to Rs. 40364
millions in 1985-86 and that the proportion of GNP allocated
to education will raise from 2‘9% in 1965 to 6‘0% in 1985-86.
(2) Allocation of Funds : While the broad pattern of
educational expenditure in different sectors of education during the
next two or three decades will be to devote two-thirds of the
available resources to school education and one third to higher
education, the relative emphasis on programmes should change
from decade to decade as follows —
1. From 1965 to 1975 the relative emphasis should be on a
larger expenditure at the school stage. This wilt be
necessary in order to : (i) upgrade the salaries of school
teachers, (ii) transfer the UPC and the Intermediate
classes from University to the school stage, (iii) provide
at least five years of effective education to all children,
and (iv) vocationalize secondary education.
Educational Finance 143
2. The programme to be emphasized during the decade
1975 to 1985 will include the provision of seven years of
effective primary education, the addition of one year to
the school stage and vocationalization of secondary
education. During this decade emphasis should be begin
to shift in favour of higher education.
3. After 1985, there will be increased emphasis on the deve-
lopment of higher education and research.
(3) Sources of Educational Finance : (1) Although most of
the responsibility for the support of education will be placed on
governmental funds, a total centralization of all financial respon-
sibility for education in the Government will not be desirable.
Attempt should therefore be made to raise contributions from
local communities, voluntary organisations and the local author-
ities for this purpose. (2) The assistance of the local community
should be mobilized through the organisation of school improve-
ment conferences for improving the physical facilities in schools
and the creation of school funds. (3) In order to provide financial
support to District School Boards, Zila Parishads should raise
funds for education by levying cess on land revenue. The state
should prescribe the minimum rate of the levy and authorize the
Zila Parishads to raise it to a certain prescribed maximum. In
order to stimulate the collection of funds the Government should
give grant in-aid proportionate to the additional revenues thus
collected by Zila Parishads.
(4) Grant-in-aid to Zila Parishads ; (1) The system of grant-
in-aid from the State Govt, to Zila Parishads should be refor-
med on the following lines— (i) 100% grant for salaries and all-
owances of teachers and other administrative and supervisory
staff sanctioned by the Government. Definite norms regarding
the number of teachers required and the administrative and super-
visory staff needed should be fixed, (ii) For non teacher costs, a
block grant per child in attendance should be given. The amount
of this grant should be fixed separately for each category of
schools and should be revised after 3 to 5 years, (iii) The resources
raised locally by a Zila Parishad as well as the State grant thereon
should be left with the Zila Parishad for such development
programmes it deems necessary, (iv) Grant-in-aid for non-recurr-
ing expenditure should be given separately, preferably at about-
two-thirds of the expenditure.
144 Kothari Commission
2. The amount of grant-in-aid given by the Government to
ZiJa Parishads should be allowed to be funded and not
made to lapse at the end of the financial year.
(5) Grant-in-aid to Municipalities . (1) It should be made
obligatory for the Municipalities to bear a certain proportion of
the cost of education. For this purpose of Governmental grants,
the Municipalities should be classified into groups on the basis
of their wealth and the poorer Municipalities should be given
grant-in-aid at a higher rate than others, (3) All Corporations
should be made responsible for supporting at least primary edu-
cation within their jurisdiction. The Government grant to them
should be on a proportional basis so that the corporations contri-
bute a certain percentage of the expenditure from their own funds.
(6) The Role of the Centre : The Central Government should
assume a larger financial responsibility for education by expan-
ding the Central and Centrally sponsored sectors. It should have
the following characteristics :
1 . It should include programmes of crucial importance and
national in character.
2. In the Centrally sponsored sector, it should be possible
for some programmes to vary from State to State accord-
ing their needs.
3. Central-assistance for programmes in the Centrally
sponsored sector should be given for five years which
may in certain cases be continued upto 10 yerrs and not
for plan periods as at present.
(7) Economics and Utilization : Even with the mobilization
of maximum resources for education, the funds will still be inade-
quate to meet even the minimum needs of educational reconstruc-
tion, if conventional techniques involving large wastage and
stagnation continue. -It would, therefore, be necessary to adopt
measures for economy, eradication of wastage and most efficient
utilisation of funds. These and all other measures, which promote
economy consistent with efficiency should be adopted.
(8) Research : Studies conducted in some other countries
indicate the importance of education for economic growth, but
such studies have not been conducted in India so far. In view of
the importance of the subject, the UGC should encourage studies
on the subject to be conducted in a few universities.
Educational Finance 145
2- THE EVALUATION
The Commission wants an increase of 4} times in the per
capita expenditure on education during the next 20 years, it is
'‘absolutely indispensible if a break through is to be made in educa-
tional development in the first instance and the total national
developmeiit in the long rimfi
The increase of per capita income is this —
First Plan ... Rs. 3‘20
Third Plan ... Rs. 12T0
It should be raised —
Fourth Plan ... Rs. 17‘30
Fifth Plan ... Rs. 24-70
By lb>85-86 ... Rs. 54-00
“Then it would be possible to go even beyond it by making a
more strenuous effort to reduce the birth-rate or to increase the
rate of economic growth”, says the Commission.
(1) Rate of Increase in Educational Expenditure^ : As the
price line is going high, our expenditure is also increasing. We
have realised the importance of education.
A 10% annual increase in expenditure taking the total to
Rs. 966 crores in 1970-71, Rs. 1,156 crores in 1975-76 and to
4,036 crores in 1985-86 has been envisaged.
The expenditure in terms of the pecentage of National
income is proposed to be raised from 2’9% in 1665-66 to 3-4% in
1970-71 and 6% in 1985-86.
In advance countries per capita expenditure on education is
like this —
Japan
France ... Rs-
U. S. S. R. ... Rs. 378
Britain ... Rs. 515
U. S. A. ... Rs- R175
(2) Use of Funds : The Commisson is of the opinion that
there should be a rational use of educational funds. According
to the Commission -“We can’t help feeling that even at the level
of expenditure that has already been reached, the overall picture
of educational develo pment would have been much better if a
1 J C Agarwal Major Recommendations of Education Commission
Page 159—161.
146 Kothari Commission
dilTcrcnt pattern of investment has been adopted or an alternative
set of priorities accepted or the intensity of ultilisation has been
greater.”
The Commission wants to make a pattern of investment
which varies in every decade. Accordingly — (i) Emphasis should
be laid on a larger investment at the school stage, mainly because
it would be necessary to upgrade the salaries of school teachers,
(ii) Emphasis will have to be placed on adding one year to the
school stage and vocationalizing education, (iii) Programmes at
secondary stage would be nearing completion and the emphasis
would shift very largely to the development of higher educatio;
and research.
(3) Education in Fourth Plan : We have set our targets quit
high and therefore, the fourth Plan provision of Rs. 1,260 crore
has been fixed for programme designed to bring about qualitativ(
improvement in education without overlooking the need o
expansion at certain levels.
According to the annual report of the Ministry of Educatioi
for 1965-66, the enrolment drive would be intensified at the middl(
stage to ensure that the percentage of school going children in thi
age group 6-11 and 11-14 would go up from 28’5 and 33’4 at th(
end of the Third Plan to 93’1 and 47’4 respectively by 1970-71
The total number of students in schools and colleges in the countrj
in 1965-66 totalled 6’90 million, according to the report.^
Paucity of funds as a result of emergency has to a reductior
in the number of scholarships. It will now be possible to give onlj
1,150 additional rewards instead of 2,650. Similar is the position
with loan scholarships which are reduced from 29,600 to 18,OOC
The total outlay of Rs. 1,260 crores for education in fourth
Plan was distributed as follows —
(1) Elementary Education ... Rs. 398'50 Crores.
(2) Secondary Education ... Rs. 27917 Crores.
(3) University Education ... Rs. 132’45 Crores.
(4) Scholarships ... Rs. 55 00 Crores.
(5) Social Education ... Rs. 7100 Crores.
(6) Technical Education ... Rs. 250 00 Crores.
(7) Culture and Others ... Rs. 71 00 Crores. ^
I, Hindustan Times— Dated April 18, 1967,
Educational Finance 147
Fourth Plan targets aimed at additional enrolment of 19 milion
children in the age group 6-11 and eight milion in the age group
11-14, while in the case of higher education a target of 5 Lakhs
had been fixed. No new university was proposed to be established.
In 5th Plan a budget of Rs. 1,732 crores was provided and it
was not worthwhile to meet the demand of the day.
The above mentioned figures and statements have produced a
comparative study with the recommendations of the Commission.
A PANORAMA OF DECADE
A Every society that values social justice and is anxious
to improve the lost of the common man and cultivate
all available talent, must ensure progressive equality
of opportunity to all sections of the population. This
is the only guarantee for the building up of our egali-
tarrian and human society in which the exploitation of
the weak will be minimized.
A Education is a three fold process of imparting know-
ledge, developing skills and inculcating proper inte-
rests, attitudes and values.
A Education does not end with schooling but it is a life
long process.
EDUCATION COMMISSION (1964-1966)-
EDUCATION AND NATIONAL DEVELOP.ME.NT
I. INTRODUCTION
, National Education Commission was set up for reviewing the
structure of national education system in 1964. This Commission
was headed by the then U. G. C. chairman Dr. D. S. Kothari.
It feels the need for the national policy on education. It was a
pity on the part of the Indian Government that she did not feel
the necessity of a national system of education. For the first time
in 1967, a committee^ of members of parliament was set-up to
frame the national policy on education in order to follow the path
of national development so that we can pace together with the
other countries of the world.
Following were the terms of reference before the com-
mittee:—
(1) To consider the report of the Education Commission.
(2'j To prepare a draft statement on the National Policy on
Education for the Consideration of the Govt, of India.
(3) To indentify a programme for immediate action.
Following were the members of the committee ;
Dr. Triguna Sen (Chairman), Prof Sher Singh, Bhagwat Jha
‘Azad,’ R. K. Amin, K Anbazhagan, Dr, Anup Singh, A. E. T.
Barrow, A. K. Chandra, T. Chengalvarayan, V. M. Chordia,
Dinkar Desai, Digvijai Nath, R. R. Diwakar. S. N. Dewedi, S. M.
Joshi, Smt. Kamla Kumari, D. M. Kedaria, M. R, Krishan,
Balraj Madhok, Hiren Mukerjee, Tarkeshwar pande, Dayabhai
V. Patel, Sadiq Ali, Anant Tripathi Sharma, Smt. Savitri Shyam,
Ganga Sharan Sinha, S. K. Vaishampayen.
The draft committee^ kept following considerations in mind
with drafting the report.
1. The Committee was set upon 5th April 1967.
2. The names of the members of draft committee are given below
Ganga Sharan Sinha ^Chairman), R. K. Amin. K. Anbazihgan.
Barrow, R.D. Bhandari, Dinker Desai, Hiren Mukerjee, .i O'.n
Mandhok, D. C. Sharma. Dayabhai Patel, J. P. Naik (Scen’rao)
A.E.T.
Balraj
1 52 Kothari Commission
(1) This Committee has not accepted the Commission’s
recommendations for the creation of five or six ‘major’
universities or for upgrading iQ percent of the institutions
and offer special additional assistance, on the basis of
proper criteria, to those institutions which show high
level performance and promise.
(2) This committee has placed a greater emphasis on expan-
sion of facilities at school stage.
(3) This committee has not yet favoured several recommen-
dations of the commission whose main objective was to
create certain new administrative structures of change
in existing ones.
2. TEXT OF THE COMMITTEE’S REPORT ON
NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION^
1. Education is a powerful instrument of national develop-
ment — social, economic and cultural. The highest prior-
ity should therefore be accorded to the development
of a national system of education which will —
(i) accelerate the transformation of the existing social
system into a new one based on the principles of
justice, equality, liberty and dignity of the individual,
enshrined in the Constitution of India ;
(ii) provide adequate and equal opportunity to every
child and help him to develop his personality to its
fullest ;
(iii) make the rising generation conscious of the funda-
mental unity of the country in the midst of her rich
diversity, proud of her cultural heritage and confi-
dent of her great future ; and
(iv) emphasize science and technology and the cultivation
of moral; social and spiritual values.
(i) Transformation of the Educational System :
2. From this point of view, the most important and urgent
reform needed is to transform the existing system of
education in order to strengthen national unity, promote
social integration, accelerate economic growth and gene-
rate moral, social and spiritual values^
1. The auther is grateful to the Govt, of India, for reproducing the text of
the national policy on education.
National Policy on Education 153
(1) Strengthening National Unity ;
3. Education should deepen national consciousness, pro-
mote a proper understanding and appreciation of our
cultural heritage and inspire a faith and confidence in the
great future which we can forge for ourselves. These
objectives should be achieved by a carefully planned study
of India languages, literature, philosophy and history
and by introducing students to India’s achievements in the
positive sciences, architecture, sculpture, painting, music,
dance and drama.
4. All students should be given appropriate courses in
citizenship which emphasize the fundamental unity of
India in the midst of her rich diversity. These should
include a study of the Freedom Struggle, the Constitution,
the noble principles enshrined in its preamble and the
problems and programmes of national development.
5. National and social service, including participation in
meaningful and challenging programmes of community
service or national reconstruction, should be made an
integral part of education at all stages ; and suitable
projects for this purpose should be designed and carried
out in the context of local conditions and available
resources.
6. Efforts should be made to promote greater knowledge,
understanding and appreciation of the different regions of
India by including their study in the curricula ; by the
exchange of students and teachers and by giving them
opportunities and facilities for educational and study
tours ; and by the maintenance of all-India institutions
which bring together students from different regions.
7. Curricular and co-curricular programmes should include
the study of humanism based on mutual appreciation of
international cultural values and the growing solidarity
of mankind.
(2) The Neighbourhood School :
8. To strengthen social unity and to provide equality of
opportunity to the less advanced section ol the society,
the unhealthy social segregation that now takes place
between the schools for the rich and those for the poor
should be ended ; and the primary schools should be
154 Kothari Comraissiori
made the common schools of the nation by making it
obligatory on all children, irrespective of caste, creed,
community, religion, economic condition or social status,
to attend the primary school in their neighbourhood.
This sharing of life among the children of all social strata
will strengthen the sense of being one nation which is an
essential ingredient of good education. Moreover, the
establishment of neighbourhood schools will induce the
rich, privileged and powerful classes to take an active
interest in the system of public education and thereby
bring about its early improvement. In implementing the
programme, the rights of linguistic minorities should not
be adversely affected, and the transition to the new pattern
should be carefully planned and implemented with a view
to improving amenities and standards all school.^
(3) Adoption of Indian Languages as Media of Education at All
Stages :
9. The development of a proper language policy can assist
in strengthening national unity. The key programme will
be to develop all India languages and to adopt them as
media of education at all stages. Unless this is done,
the creative energies of the people will not be released,
standards of education will not spread to the people, and
the gulf between the intelligentsia and the masses will
continue to widen. This change-over should be brought
about in five years. Adequate resources should be made
available for this programme and the willing and
enthusiastic cooperation of the academic community
should be secured. In implementing this reform, the
following important points will have to be kept in view ;
(i) All-India institutions (i.e., those which admit stu-
dents from all region of the country) should use
Hindi and English as media of education having
regard to the needs of students. Admissions to
these institutions should be so planned that students
educated through any Indian language are no t any
]. Shri Dinkar Desai and Shri S. N. Dwivedy are not sure whether under
our Constitution, parents can be compelled to send their children to any
particular school and suggest that this aspect of the neighbourhood school
may be examined by Government,
National Policy on Education 155
disadvantage. In addition, all such institutions
should maintain special departments which will
provide intensive course to the newly admitted
students in Hindi/English to enable them to follow
with ease the education given to them.
(ii) The work of devising scientific and technical termi-
nology should be expeditiously completed. This
terminology should be adopted/adapted in all Indian
languages.
(iii) Steps should be taken side to ensure that students
who have been educated through the medium of
Indian languages are not deprived to opportunities
of good employment. These would include the
adoption of Indian languages for all administrative
purposes in the States and their use in the UPSC
examination.
(iv) Adequate safeguards should be provided for ling-
uistic minorities.
(v) A large scale programme for the production of
necessary literature in all Indian languages should be
developed. This should be i.rnplemented mainly
through the universities but should be centrally
planned, coordinated and financed. The objective
should be to produce, within five years, most of the
text books required for this programme in all sub-
jects and at all levels.
(vi) Suitable sefeguards should be devised to prevent any
lowering of standards during the process of change
over. In fact, the desirability and success of the
change should be judged in terms of the contribu-
tion it makes to rising the quality of education. But
caution should not be equated to delay or inaction.
It it meaningful only if it is part of a policy of deter-
mined, deliberate and vigorous action.
(4) The Teaching of Languages :
10. For the teaching of languages, the following principles
should kept in view ;
(i) Classes I-X : The parent has a right to claim pri-
mary education in the mother tongue of his child.
Every effort should be made to meet this demand.
1 56 Kothari Commission
At the secondary stage, the regional language should
ordinarily be the medium of education. Adequate
safeguard should be provided for linguistic minorities.
Only one language, viz, the medium of education,
should ordinarily be studied in the first substage of
school education covering four or five years. Facilities
should be provided, on an optional basis, for the study
of regional language when it does not happen to be
medium of education. A second language should be
introduced, on a compulsory basis, ordinarily at the
biginning of the next substage. This may perferably be a
language included in Schedule VIII of the Constitution,
or English or any other language. The study of this
language should be continued till the end of class X. A
pupil may begin the study, at his option, of any
third language, ordinarily from class VIII, provided
that a pupil who has has not studied either Hindi or
English in the earlier classes shall be under an obli-
gation to study one of these two languages at this
sub-stage. However, it is desirable that a pupil should
before he complete his school education, acquire some
knowledge of three languages — regional language,
mother tongue, Hindi, and English or any other
language.
(ii) C/ass XI — XII : At this sub-stage a pupil shall study
at least one language of his choice in addition
to the medium of education.
(Hi) University Stage ; While facilities to study languages
on an optional basis, should be adequately provided
at the university stage, the study of no language
should be made compulsory unless such study is as
essential part of a prescribed course.
(5) Hindi the Link Language ;
11. In practice, Hindi is already largely in use as a link
language for the country. The educational system
should contribute to the acceleration of this process
in order to facilities the movement of students and
teachers and to strengthen national unity. The special
emphasis on the study of Hindi is also justified on
account of the fact that it will become the sole official
National Policy on Education 157
language in the future when the non-Hindi areas accept
it as such. It is also recognized as one of the official
languages of UNESCO, signifying its importance as one
of the major languages of wide dissemination in the
world.
6. Sanskrit :
12. India has a special responsibility for the promotion of
Sanskrit. Facilities for its teaching at the school stage
should be provided on a liberal scale and its study
encouraged. Where possible, composite courses of
Sanskrit and the regional languages should be provided.
A more important programme is to ensure its wide
study at the collegiate stage. For this purpose, new
methods of teaching should be evolved to enable college
students to acquire an adequate and quick command of
language, even though they may not have studied it at
school. Universities should also examine the desir-
ability of including a study of Sanskrit in those courses
at the first and second degree where such knowledge
is essential (e.g., courses in certain modern Indian
languages, ancient Indian history, Indology, Indian
philosophy.) The traditional system of Sanskrit learning
should be encouraged.
(7) Science Education and Research :
13. With a view to accelerating economic growth, science
education and research should be developed on a prioity
basis. Science and mathematics should be an integral
part of general education till the end of class X, the
quality of science teaching should be improved at all
stages and scientific research should be promoted,
particularly in the universities, and related closely to
the development of agriculture and industry. In order
that the Government of India should have competent,
impartial and objective advice on science research policy,
the Scientific Advisory Committee to the Cabinet should
include, not only the heads of major agencies concerned
with scientific research but also economists, social
scientists, industrialists and distinguished persons from
public life, including social workers. The Committee
Siould carry out, from time to time, objective studies of
158 Kothari Commission
the investments made in scientific research and the
results obtained.
8. Education for Agriculture and Industry ;
14. Great emphasis should be placed on the development
of education for agriculture and industry) The basic
purpose of education for agriculture is to increase agri-
cultural production by improving the competence of
farmer and, to that end, to promote agricultural research
and to train personnel needed for research, training and
extension. In each State there should be at least one
agricultural university which will develop integrated
programmes of research, extension and training, and
where necessary, strong agricultural faculties should be
established in other universities. Agricultural polyte-
chnics providing different courses needed for agricultural
or agro-industrial development should be established.
There is urgent need, in rural areas, for suitable centres
or institutions providing extension services to farmers
and giving part-time intensive courses to young persons
who have left school and taken to agriculture.
15. In technical education, programmes of qualitative im-
provement should be stressed. Practical training in
industry should form an integral part of the various
courses. The existing institutions for the education of
engineers should be consolidated and strengthened with
special emphasis on the provision of project work to
be done by the students who should also be initiated
into the methodology of research by diversifying the
courses and offering suitable electives. Technicians
should be given a better status in industry and in society;
and institutions situated in industrial complexes should
be involved intimately in their training and should
specially strive to organize sandwich and part-time
courses. Both technical education and research should
be related closely to industry, encouraging the flow of
personnel both ways and continuous co operation in the
provision, design and periodical review of training pro-
grammes and facilities. Government should give all
encouragement and assistance to industry for starting
research and training programmes within the industry.
National Policy of Education 159
(9) Work-Experience .
16. Yet another means of relating education to productivity
is to include work experience which may be defined as
participation in productive work in school, in the home,
in a workshop, in factory, on a farm, or in any other
productive situation, as an integral part of general edu-
cation at the school stage. This work with hands will
help the young to develop insight into productive pro-
cesses and use of science and inculcate in them respect
for manual labour and habits of hard and responsible
work.
(10) Character-Formation :
17. The formation of character should receive due emphasis
in the total process of education. It is true that edu-
cation alone cannot promote the appropriate moral,
social and spiritual values which are generated by
several institutions and organs of society. It must how-
ever contribute significantly to the moulding outlook
and values of the youth and the strengthening of its
moral fibre. The quality of reading materials, the
stress on the proper study of the humanities and the
sciences, including the study of the great universal
religions, the rendering of social service to the commu-
nity, and participation in games and sports and hobbies,
will contribute to the formation of right attitudes and
values. Above ail, the example set by teachers and
elders will be decisive. Due attention should therefore
be paid to those factors and activities in educational
planning at all levels.
(2) EQUALIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL
OPPORTUNITIES
18. In spite of the rapid educational expansion achieved
during the last twenty years, the existing facilities fall far
short of national needs and expectations. Expansions
will therefore have to continue and even accelerated
at the school stage with a view to equalizing educational
opportunity.
(Ill Per-Priniarv Education : , . ,
19. Later at.entioD needs to be paid to the development
of p,e-prin,ary education. Voluntary organ, zat.ons eon-
160 Kothari Commission
dueling pre-primary institutions should receive encourge-
ment and financial assistance, especially when they are
working in rural areas, urban slums, or for children of
the weaker sections of the community. Every encourage-
ment should be given to experimentation, particularly
in devising less costly methods of expansion.
(12) Primary Education :
20. The provision of good and effective primary education,
on a free and compulsory basis, is the foundation of
democracy and national development. It should be given
the highest priority and implementation in two stages.
In the first stage, universal education should be provided
for all children till they reach the age of eleven years ,
and the second, this age-limit should be raised to four-
teen years.
21. Primary education should be made immediately free in
all parts of the country and facilities for it should be
universalized within five years, i. e., a primary school
should be available within a working distance from the
home of every child. Intensive efforts should be made
to enrol girls and children from the weaker sections of
the community through parental education and incen-
tives. Strenuous efforts should be made to reduce
wastage and stagnation and to ensure that every child
enrolled in schools passes regularly from class to class
and remains in school till he completes the primary
course. Success in this, will depend upon the extent to
which facilities are provided for pre-primary education,
the qualitative improvement of primary schools, the
adoption of the ungraded system^ in classes I and II
(and if possible, even in classes I-IV) and the provision
of facilities for part-time education for all children who
cannot attend schools on a full-time basis.
22. The unfinished task in those which are poorer and
more backward, at the State level, special assistance
should therefore be made available to under-developed
areas for the expansion and impro vement of primar)^
1. In this system, classes I-II will be treated as one unit and there "ill
be no detention at the end of the first year.
National Policy on Education 161
education and the Government of India should make
special assistance available to the less advanced States.
(13) The Ten-Year School :
23. It will be advantageous to have a broadly uniform edu-
cational structure in all parts of the country. The first
step is to create the Ten-Year School providing a
common pattern of general education for all children.
The standard to be reached at the end of this stage
should be broadly similar to that which is now reached
at the secondary school-leaving certificate examination.
The division of this stage into sub-stages— lower pri-
mary, higher primary, higher primary and lower
secondary— should not be rigid and should allow for
variations necessitated by local condition.
24. There should be a common course of general education
for all students at this stage. This will include language
(s), science and mathematics, social studies (which at
later stage' will be studied as separate disciplines of
geography, history and civics), work-experience, social
or national service, physical and health education and
education in moral and social values. There should also
be no essential differentiation between the curricula for
boys and girls.
25 The national policy should be ultimately to make this
’ period of ten years (which includes the primary and the
lower secondary stages) free and compulsory for all
children. This will be achieved m stages, beginning
with making lower secondary education tuition-free and
providing facilities for it in all areas. A large proportion
of students who complete the primary course will proceed
further to lower secondary education. But for tho.e ■..ho
leave school at the end of the primary stage and eWe
o learn some vocational skills, suitable course, of -.ar-
■ durations-from one to three ee
provided, both on full-time and part time c^sis.
1 ) Higher Secondary Education :
26. The next stage in the educational structu^re i- '
secondary (or the pre-un.vers.i> )■ _ The
academic course at this stage shou.u
: n c :
162 Kothari Commission
to two years in all parts of the country under a phased
plan. The curriculum should include two languages,
three subjects selected from a prescribed list, work-exper-
ience and social service, physical and health education,
and education in moral and social values. It is desirable
to treat this stage as a part of school education and to
entrust its academic control to a single authority in each
State on which the universities should have adequate
representation. As a transitional measure, the attach-
ment of these classes to colleges may be continued
wherever necessary.
27. The duration of the vocational courses at this stage
should vary according to their objectives (1-3 years).
They should cover a large number of fields such as agri-
culture, industry trade and commerce, and public health,
home management, arts and crafts education, secretarial
training, etc. Their organization should be elastic, allow-
ing for full-time and correspondence courses and a
large variety of institutional arrangements. The enrol-
ment in vocational courses should be substantially in-
creased to cover ultimately about half the total enrol-
ment at the higher secondary stage.
28. Education at this stage should be largely terminal so that
a majority of students who complete class XII enter diff-
erent walks of life From this point of view, the recruit-
ment to the lower administrative services and posts
should ultimately be made from amongst those who have
completed the higher secondary stage and recruitment of
graduates to these posts should be discourged by prescri-
bing a lower age for appointment. It is desirable to
select the personnel even for the superior posts under
Government or in the public sector at the end of the
higher secondary stage itself and then train them further
at State expense.
(15) Higher Education :
29. The duration of the courses for the first degree in arts,
commerce and science should be three years after the
higher secondary stage. Where this is only two years at
present, a phased programme should be prepared for the
introduction of the longer course.
National Policy on Education 163
30. Immediate and effective steps should be taken to reorga-
nize courses and to revise and upgrade curricula at the
university stage. The link between the subject taken at
the school stage and those at the first degree should be
less rigid and combinations of subjects permissible for
the first and the second degrees should be more elastic
than is generally the case at present. Special efi’orts are
also needed to promote inter-disciplinary studies.
31. The universities should define the conditions for eligi-
bility for admission to different courses at the undergra-
duate stage, ineligible student being allowed to re-appear
at the relevant examination to earn eligibility. Similarly,
the number of full-time students to be admitted to each
college or department of a university should be deter-
mined with reference to teachers and facilities available.
Adequate resources should however be provided to
ensure that all eligible students who desire to study fur-
ther get admission to higher education ; and in order to
secure social justice, some allowance should be made
for the environmental handicaps of students from rural
areas, from urban slums and from the weaker sections of
the community. Facilities for study through morning
or evening colleges and correspondence courses should be
provided on a liberal scale. At the postgraduate stage,
the selection for admission should be rigorous.
(16) Part-Time and Own-Time Education :
32 Part-time and own-time education should be developed
on a large scale at every stages and in all sectors and
given the same status as full time education. These
facilities will smoothen the transition from school to
work, reduce the cost of education to the State, and pro-
vide opportunities to the large number of persons who
desire to educate themselves further but cannot afford
to do so on a full time basis. In particular, greater
emphasis has to be laid on the development of corres-
pondence courses not only for university students, but
also for secondary school students, for teachers, for agri-
cultural, industrial and other workers ; and facilities
should be available, both to men and women, to study
privately and appear at the various examinations con-
ducted by the boards of education and the universities.
164 Kothari Commission
ill) Spread of Literacy and Adult Education :
33. The liquidation of mass illiteracy is essential, not only
for accelerating programmes of production, especially in
agriculture, but for quickening the tempo of national
development in general. Plans to accelerate the spread of
literacy should therefore be prepared and intensively
implemented on several fronts. With a view to reducing
new additions to the ranks of adult illiterates, part-time
literacy classes should be organized for grown-up children
(age group 11-17) who did not attend school to have
lapsed into illiteracy. All employees in large commercial
industrial and other concerns should be made function-
ally literate within a prescribed period of their employ-
ment and a lead in this direction should be given by the
industrial plants in public sector. Similarly, teachers,
students and educational institutions should be actively
involved in literacy campaigns, especially as a part of
the social or national service programme. The achieve-
ment of literacy should be the provision of attractive
reading materials and library services to the new
literates.
34. Adult or continuing education should be developed
through facilities for part-time or own-time education
and through the expansion and improvement of library
services, educational broadcasting and television. The
development of extension services in universities is of
great significance in this context. In particular, the
universities should organize special extension programmes
to train rural leadership.
(18) Education of Girls ;
35. In the post- independence period, the enrolment of girls,
as well as the number of women teachers, his increased
rapidly at all stages of education ; and in most areas of
study, girls have shown remarkable achievements and
proved that they are at least equal to, if no better than,
the boys. But in spite of all that has been done, there is
still a wide gap in the enrolment of boys and girls at all
stages. It is necessary to eliminate this gap at the primary
stage, and to narrow it at the other stages. The education
National Policy on Education 1 65
of girls should therefore receive special emphasis and
the funds required for its advancement should be provided
on a priority basis. Suitable measures for speedy
implementation should be devised, particularly taking
into acount the needs of the rural areas. The appoint-
ment of women teachers should be encouraged at all
stages and especially at the primary stage.
(19) Education of the Weaker Sections of the Community :
36. In spite of the increasing attention given, since indepen-
dence, to the education of the weaker section of the
community, the gap between their level of educational
development and the average for the society as a whole
still continued to be very wide. It is therefore necessary
to expand and extend the existing special educational
facilities and concessions to the scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes including Nav-Boudlias converted from
the scheduled castes whose social and economic condi-
tions and position continue to remain unchanged. Special
efforts in affording financial relief and some preference
for admission to good institutions at all levels will be
necessary. Care must also be taken to ensure that the
educated persons from these classes are suitably
employed. Untill these weaker sections catch up with
the rest of the community, a system of reservation in
employment opportunities would be justified.
37 The education of the tribal people also needs more inten-
sive efforts. Here the problems of language and sparsity
of population become great handicaps for the spread of
education. Special measures, analogous to those specified
in the foregoing paragraphs are necessary, emphasis being
placed on Ashram schools, the development of carefully
trained cadres of workers for tribal areas, ultimately
derived from the tribals themselves, and simultaneous
development of programmes for their economic improve-
AtTresent, the definition of ‘backwardness’ is based on
birth It is necessary to change this and to define back-
wardness' in socio-economic terms and to extend edu-
cational concessions and assistance, similar to those now
offered to the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, to all
166 Kothari Commission
socially and economically handicapped persons.
(50) Education of the Handicapped Children :
39. The facilities for the education of the physically £
mentally handicapped children should be expanded ; i
at least one good institution for the education of the bJ
and deaf children should be established in each distr
Every attempt should be made to develop integrated p
grammes enabling the handicapped children to study
regular schools. It is necessary to coordinate the acti
ties of different agencies working in the Geld.
(3) PROGRAMMES OF QUALITIES IMPROVEME^
40. Educational expansion which is so essential for natioi
development and equalization of educational opportun
should not imply any lowering of standards. On the otl
hand, it should be accompanied by simultaneous effo
to raise substantially the standards of education and
keep them continually rising. At least in the crucial s<
tors, our standards should be internationally comparab
(21) Teachers : Status and Education :
41. Standards in education are primarily determined by t
quality, competence and character of teachers. It :
therefore, necessary to make a sustained eflFort to I
teaching profession a significant proportion of talenti
young men and women who leave the schools and unive
sities every year and to retain them as dedicate
enthusiastic and contended teachers. An importai
step in this direction will be to improve the remuneratic
and conditions of work and service of teachers and I
provide them with adequate opportunities of profession
advancement. From this point of view, the followir
are some of the important programmes to be developed
(i) There should be minimum national scales of pay fc
university, college and school teachers. An upwar
revision of scales applicable to the teaching profi
ssion in the context of general pay structure in th
country is justified and should be carried out as soo
as possible, and the whole position should
reviewed periodically. In particular, the existing
yvide gap between the salary scales for school and
National Policy on Education 167
university for college) teachers should be reduced :
the principle of parity for salary and aJJownces
should be adopted at the school stage for all teachers
in the serv ice of government, local authorities or
voluntary organizations.
(ii) A uniform system of retirement benefits should be
introduced for all public servants and teachers, the
triple-benefit scheme (i.e., a scheme to cover pension,
provident fund and insurance) being adopted as a
transitional measure. Appropriate v,-elfare ser\'ices
should also be provided on a basis of joint contri-
bution and management by teachers and govern-
ment.
(iii) The conditions of work and service of teachers
should be improved and should be uniform for
teachers under dilierent managements. Steps should
be taken to ensure security of tenure to teachers in
non-government service. Adequate residential faci-
lities should be provided to teachers in non-govern-
ment service. Adequate residential facilities should
be provided to teachers at all stages.
(iv) Teachers' organizations should be encouraged and
recounized. In each State, there should be an advi-
sory council consisting of the representatives of the
organizations of teachers, voluntary agencies con-
ducting educational institutions and officers of the
Education Department. Its scope should include
all matters relating to conditions of work and welfare
services of school teachers and improvement of
education.
(v) With the uparading of remuneration, there should te
a correspondins improvement in qualifications,
quality and work of teachers. Adequate qualifica-
tions, both in general and professional education,
should be prescribed for teachers at different levels.
The procedure for recruitment should also be
improved and should be similar in ail institutions,
irrespective of their managements.
fvi) The training of school teachers should be brought
within the broad stream of university life and the
1 68 Kothari ComniissJon
isolation of training institutions from the schools
should be ended. Schools of education should be
established in universities. Each State should
prepare and implement, on a priority basis, a plan
for the expansion and improvement of teacher
education at all stages,
(vii) The academic freedom of teachers to pursue and
publish their studies and researches and to speak
and write about significant national and international
issues should be protected. Teachers should also be
free to exercise all civic rights including the right to
participate in elections; and when doing so, they
should be entitled to and take leave of absence
from their substantive posts.
42. The improvement in the status of teachers should be
accompanied by a corresponding deepening of their
awareness of crucial role which they have to play in
moulding the life and character of the rising generation
and ultimately of the nation itself. Teachers should
pursue learning and excellence with dedication and
devotion, bear unstinting loyalty to their institutions and
strive for the welfare and all-round development of the
students entrusted to their care. Teacher’s organizations
should evolve codes of conduct for teachers which should
be zealously guarded by the profession itself.
(22) New Methods of Teaching :
43. The improvement in the quality of teachers and their pro-
fessional preparation should help to revolutionize the
process of education by the adoption of modern methods
of teaching whose chief aim is to build up proper interest,
attitudes and values and whose accent is on the dignity
and freedom of the individual, awakening of curiosity
and promoting love of learning habits of self-study,
capacity to think and judge for oneself and problem-
solving ability. This development which is the essence
of progressive and modern education should be facilitated
through other programmes of qualitative improvement
such as revision and upgrading of curricula adequated
supply of high-quality teaching and learning materials,
examination reform, organization of a nation-wide pro-
^^ationaI Policy On Education 169
gramme of institutional development, provision of ade-
quate student services and the discovery and development
of talent.
23) Curricula and Text-books :
44. There is an urgent need to upgrade and improve school
curricula, to increase their knowledge content and to
provide adequately for the development of skills and
the inculcation of right interests, attitudes and values.
Similar steps are also needed at the university stage.
45. High priority should be given to the organization of
a rich and varied programme of co-curricular activities
for students at all stages. Games and sports should be
developed on a large scale, and on a priority basis, with
the object of improving the physical fitness and sports-
manship of the average student rather than only for
training champions. There should be great emphasis on
the provision of playing fields and on the fullest use of
stadiams by educational institutions. Coaches should be
provided in schools and colleges. Special effort should
be made to develop hockey in which we excel, football,
volleyball, wrestling and Indian games like Kabaddi or
Kho Kho which cost little but provide vigorous physical
exercise. Hiking and mountaineering need special
encouragement.
46. The quality of text books should be kept at the highest
level by attracting in the best talent available through
a liberal policy of remuneration and by giving special
encouragement to outstanding teachers. The Government
of India should take immediate steps for the production
of high-quality textbooks which may be adopted/adapted
in the States. The State Governments should set up auto-
nomous, corporations, functioning on commercial lines,
for the production of textbooks. But they should not
claim a monopoly therein and should enlist the coopera-
tion of the private sector. In each class and for every
subject for which a textbook is needed, there should be
at least three or four approved books and a school should
be free to choose the books best suited to it.
47. It is essential that an increasing number of common
books should be read by all school students in the
170 itotiiari Commission
country. For this purpose, the Government of India
should undertake, sponsor to promote the production
of a series of books on different topics of national inte-
rest. These should be written by the most competent
persons in the field, translated in all Indian languages,
priced exactly the same in every language and made
available in the library of every school.
48. The expenditure that parents have to incure on textbooks
should be kept within reasonable limits by avoiding fre-
quent changes in textbooks, by reducing the number of
prescribed or recommended books and by keeping their
prices to the minimum. A careful study should be made
of the anticipated demands for paper and printing capa-
city during the next fifteen years and early steps should
be taken to ensure that the production of paper and
increase in printing capacity in the Indian languages
keep pace with the expansion of education.
(24) Examination Reform ;
49. Attention should be concentrated on three major areas ;
reduction of the dominance of external examinations ;
the introduction of reforms which would make them
more valid, and realistic measures of educational achieve-
ment ; and the adoption of a good system of evaluation.
50. At the school stage, there should be only two public
examinations— the first at the end of class X and the
second at the end of class XII (or class XI in the transi-
tional period). Each State should have a Board of
School Education (with sub- boards, where needed) to
conduct these examination and to define the standards
to be reached. The examination certificate should give
the candidate’s performance in different subjects for
which he has appeared but should not declare him to
have passed or failed in the examination as a whole ;
and his eligibility for admission to courses at the next
stage should be dependent upon his performance with
reference to the requirements prescribed for the course
he desires to study. It should be open to a candidate
to appear again for these examinations, either in part
or as a whole, in order to improve his performance,
51. It is necessary to coordinate, at the national level, the
N'alional Policy on IZducalion 171
standards prescribed for attainment by the State boards
of education at tliese examinations. This should be
established by the Government of India which should
indicate the 'national standards* below which no State
should ordinarily fail. The National Board should also
make arranpement.s to evaluate the standards actually
attained on a school. District. State and National basis.
1. The public examinations, both at the school and uni-
versity stape*-. should be improved by employing the
latcM methods and techniques. The time-lag between
the holding of the examination and the declaration of
results should be reduced and in no ease should be longer
than about eight weeks. The final examinations of
school and colleges should be completed and their results
declared within a given lime each year so that the
students seeking admission to all-India and other impor-
tant institution do not lose a year as often happens at
present.
3. A comprehensive system of internal assessment eovering
all aspects of a student’s growth should be introduced in
all educational institutions and should be used for impro-
vement as well as for certifying the achievement of the
student. These results should be kept separate and
shown side by side in the final certificate issued after
external examinations. Every year, a careful review
should be made of the correlation between internal and
external assessment separately for each institution and
action should be taken against those which tend to over-
assess their students.
. Nation-Wide Programme of Institutional Improvement :
4 A nation-wide programme for raising standards in all
educational institutions should be developed. Each ins-
titution should be treated as a unit by itself and helped
to grow at its pace by preparing and implementing its
own developmental plan.
5 Minimum requirements should be prescribed for each
category of institutions and an attempt should be made
to provide these through the assistance of local commu-
nities and an adequate system of maintenance grar^'
l7i Kotiiari Commission
In addition, special encouragement grants should be
available to institutions on the basis of their perform-
ance and promise.
56. These attempts at institutional improvement at the
school stage can be strengthend by creating ‘school groups’
for purposes of planning and development. Each school-
group should consist of a secondary school with some
higher primary schools within its immediate neighbour-
hood, each higher primary schools being, in its turn,
the centre for some lower primary schools near in. The
immediate repsonsibilities entrusted to a school-group
should include the sharing of facilities in common and
the preparation and implementation of plans of educa-
tional development, additional powers and responsibili-
ties being given on the basis of competence and perfor-
mance. Wherever possible, colleges should linked to
secondary schools for similar programmes and the uni-
versities should be encouraged and assisted to participate
in the improvement of sehools.
5/. In the universities, a concentration of resource— both
human and material — is essential for raising standards.
Each university should therefore strive to develop some
centres of excellence within itself which could ultimately
be raised to the status of a centre of advanced study.
In addition, the University Grants Commission should
strive, where the necessary potential is available, to
create clusters of centres of advanced study in related
disciplines which strengthen and support one another.
58. Special steps should be taken to improve educational
institutions in rural areas and to reduce the wide gap
in standards that now exists between urban and rural
institutions.
(29) Students Services, Welfare and Discipline
59. It is desirable to develop programmes of student services
and welfare at all stages. At the primary stage, provi-
sion should be made for free supply of textbook to all
students, and in secondary school, textbook libraries
should be established. Simple uniforms should be pres-
cribed, sudsidized being available to poor and needy
students. School meals and health services should be
provided to the extent funds permit. School buildings
National Policy on Education 173
should be utilised, before and after school hours, as day
study centres for children who do not have such facilities
at home.
At the university stage, te.xtbook libraries should be
established in all colleges and university departments and
provision should be made for low-eost or subsidized
cafclarias and essential health services. Day-study centres
and hostels should be provided on a liberal scale. Hostel
costs should be kept down to the minimum and students
should be required to partieipatc in the management and
to practise self-help.
At both school and university stages, private tuitions
should be discouraged and institutional arrangements
should be made to assist retarded and under-achieving
students by entrusting the responsibility to teachers who
should be suitably remunerated for the purpose or by
devising plans in which the more advanced students
would help the backward ones.
In order to create a sense of responsibility and to pro-
vide civic training, students should be associated with
the management of their institutions in a manner suited
to their age and maturity. At the school stage, pupil-self-
government should be an Integral part of the institution
in every institution. This assumes an even greater impor-
tance at the university stage where the students have to
be treated as adults and increasingly associated with the
maintenance of discipline. Joint committees of teachers
and students should be established in each university
department and every college to serve as a forum for the
discussion and, where possible, for the solution of
common problems and difficulties. Students’ associations
should also be developed on proper lines.
It is a matter for serious concern that incidents of student
unrest have shown a tendency to greater frequency and
violence in recent years. The causes of this malaise are
complex and deep-seated and an effective cure goes
beyond the educational system. But the situation can
be remedied considerably if the educational system is
transformed, strengthened and made more effective -
the broad lines indicated here, The programme
Kothari Commission
developing national consciousness and of involving,
students in challenging and worthwhile projects of natio-
nal resconsfruction and the appointment of joint commit-
tees of teachers and students will also be great help. It
is however essential to emphasize that violence has no
place in any civilized society and especially in an
academic community. If its members find it necessary to
assert their democratic rights, it should be done in a
peaceful, orderly and dignified manner.
Scholarships : Discovery and Development of Talent :
64. Both in secondary and higher education, the scholar-
ships programme should be expanded and the amount of
scholarships increased, broadly to cover all costs. Other
forms of student'Which need attention are ; provision of
transport facilities where necessary and feasible, grants
for books and examination fees and creation of facilities
to earn and learn. There is also need for loan scholar-
ships at the university stage. In order to encourage good
students to join the teaching profession however, a
person who has received a loan scholarship should be
entitled to a remission of onetenth of the loan for each
year of service as a teacher.
65. The administrative procedures for the award of scholar-
ships should be streamlined and payments should be
arranged promptly, preferably from month to month.
66. At present, most scholarships are awarded on the basis of
marks obtained in some public examination, and as these
tend to favour students from the well-to-do homes or
good urban schools, potentially talented students whose
preparation has remained inadequate through no fault
of theirs are often left out. There is thus urgent need
to evolve a more equitable and egalitarion basis for the
award of scholarships and grant of admission to impor*
tant institutions of higher education.
67. Scientific techniques should be developed, especially all
kinds. The universities can play a useful role in this.
In view of the importance of the subject and our own
great traditions, special emphasis need to be placed on
the nurturing of mathematical talent. In (he case of
exceptionally gifted children, the State should assume
total responsibility for their full education. The rules
and regulations regarding courses, duration of stud ies, _
176 Kothari Commission
72. The principle of autonomy should be extended within the
university system itself. The administration of universities
should be so organized that it becomes a service agency
for the promotion of academic life. Wider administrative
and financial powers should be delegated to the depart-
ments of the universities ; and each department should
have a committee of management consisting of pro-
fessors and some readers and lecturers.
(29) The Voluntary Effort in Education :
73. Voluntary organizations have played a very important
role in the development of education in the past. In the
days ahead also, they can make a useful contribution at
the secondary and university stages and within the
framework of the neighbourhood school system, even at
the primary stage. It should therefore be an objective of
educational policy to encourage and to make full use of
all assistance that can come through the voluntary efforts
of the people.
74. The policy of the Government towards schools conducted
by voluntary organizations should be selective rather than
uniform. The system of grant-in-aid should be revised,
simplified and made more liberal. All recognised schools
should be eligible for grant-in-aid on some egalitarian
basis which will help them to maintain proper standards.
In addition, there should be provision for penal cuts for
gross failure or special grnnts for good and out-standing
work.
(30) The Educational Institutions Conduct by Minorities :
75. Educational institutions conducted by minorities have a
special place in the national system of education.
Specified safeguards are provided in the Constitution
under Articles 29 (1) and (2) and 30 (1) and ( 2 ) ; in
addition, Article 350 A has been included as a special
directive.
76. The Central and State Governmets have also indicated
in certain resolutions and statements the administrative
procedures which should be adopted in respect of
minorities. Thus, the provincial Education Ministers’
Conference in August 1949 passed a resolution (accepted
by the Central Advisory Board of Education and the
National Policy On Education 177
Government of India) which laid down detailed provi-
sions for imparting both primary and secondary educa-
tions to linguistic minorities through the medium of their
mother tongue.
77. After taking into consideration the recommendations in
the report of the State Reorganization Commission in
respect of linguistic minorities, the Government of Ir.di i
in consultation with the Chief Ministers of States pre-
pared a memorandum which was placed before both
House of Parliament in September 1956. The mcntor.m-
dum deals, among other things, with education ;l s.!'';-
guards at the primary and secondary stages and t!,:
affiliations of institutions using minority ianyua-c., h r
purposes of examination.
78. The administration at the Centre and in tlie State, s', !
not only respect the rights of minoriticN but l.e p t >
promote their educational interests.
(31) The Local Authorities :
7S
176 Kothari Commission
72. The principle of autonomy should be extended within the
university system itself. The administration of universities
should be so organized that it becomes a service agency
for the promotion of academic life. Wider administrative
and financial powers should be delegated to the depart-
ments of the universities ; and each department should
have a committee of management consisting of pro-
fessors and some readers and lecturers.
( 29) The Voluntary Effort in Education :
73. Voluntary organizations have played a very important
role in the development of education in the past. In the
days ahead also, they can make a useful contribution at
the secondary and university stages and within the
framework of the neighbourhood school system, even at
the primary stage. It should therefore be an objective of
educational policy to encourage and to make full use of
all assistance that can come through the voluntary efforts
of the people.
74. The policy of the Government towards schools conducted
by voluntary organizations should be selective rather than
uniform. The system of grant-in-aid should be revised,
simplified and made more liberal. All recognised schools
should be eligible for grant-in-aid on some egalitarian
basis which will help them to maintain proper standards.
In addition, there should be provision for penal cuts for
gross failure or special grnnts for good and out-standing
work.
(30) The Educational Institutions Conduct by Minorities :
75. Educational institutions conducted by minorities have a
special place in the national system of education.
Specified safeguards are provided in the Constitution
under Articles 29 (1) and (2) and 30 (1) and (2) ; in
addition. Article 350 A has been included as a special
directive.
76. The Central and State Governmets have also indicated
in certain resolutions and statements the administrative
procedures which should be adopted in respect of
minorities. Thus, the provincial Education Ministers’
Conference in August 1949 passed a resolution (accepted
by the Central Advisory Board of Education and the
National Policy On Education 177
Government of India) which laid down detailed provi-
sions for imparting both primary and secondary educa-
tions to linguistic minorities through the medium of their
mother tongue.
77. After taking into consideration the recommendations in
the report of the State Reorganization Commission in
respect of linguistic minorities, the Government of India
in consultation . with the Chief Ministers of States pre-
pared a memorandum which was , placed before both
House of Parliament in September 1956. The memoran-
dum deals, among other things, with educational safe-
guards at the primary and secondary stages and the
affiliations of institutions using minority languages, for
purposes of examination,
78. The administration at the Centre and in the States should
not only respect the rights of minorities but help to
promote their educational interests.
(31) The Local Authorities :
79. It is desirable to bring the school and community
together in a programme of mutual service and support.
The immediate plan to be adopted in all parts of the
country is to associate the village panchayats and
municipalities^ with the primary schools in their areas
through the creation of local school committees. These
committees should consist of the representatives of the
local authorities in the area and about an equal number
of persons interested in education. Their functions
should be to help in improving the facilities in the
schools under their charge and particulary to be res-
ponsible for the non-teacher costs. Each school
committee should have a fund of its own consisting of
(a) amounts placed at its disposal by the municipality
or the village panchayat in the area ; (b) donations
and contributions voluntarily made by the parents and
local community from ‘ time to time ; and (c) grant-in-
aid given by the State or other appropriate authority to
1. Where neither of these local authorities exist, parent-teacher asso-
ciation may be formed to discharge the responsibilities proposed here for
the school committees,
178 Kothari Commission
stimulate local collection on some basis of equalization.
80. The ultimate objective should be to create specially
constituted education boards for each district and for
the bigger municipalities and to entrust them with the
administration of all education at the school stage.
Inspection and coordination should however be invaria-
bly reserved with the Government.
81. Local authorities associated with the administration of
education should levy an education cess. A minimum
cess should be obligatory and in order to stimulate the
raising of fund, grants-in-aid should be given to match
all levies above the minimum rates. The other grants-
in aid to local authorities should be so designed as to
secure equalization. In urban areas, the municipalities
may be suitably grouped and grants so arranged the
proper local authorities get larger assistance, In rural
areas, the grants-in aid should include all teacher costs
and an additional amount, on the basis of equalization,
for other expenditure.
(32) The Government of India :
82. The Government of India has large responsibilities in
education, some directly specified in the Constitution
and others implied. The Constitution makes the Union
Government directly responsible for the Central Univer-
sities, for all institutions of national importance, for
the enrichment, promotion and propagation of Hindi,
for the coordination and maintenance of standards in
higher education, for scientific and technological research
and for education in international relationships which
includes welfare of Indian students abroad and cultural
and educational agreements with other countries. The
vocational and technical training of labour is a concur-
rent responsibilitity ; and so is social and economic
planning which includes educational planning. The
Centre also has special responsibilities for the education
of the scheduled castes and tribes.
83. Its indirect or implied responsibilities however are
greater still. The first is to serve as a clearing-house
for educational information. The annual survey of the
development of education in the country which the
National Policy On Education 179
Government of India now bring out should be supple-
mented by studies of important educational problems,
either on a regional or a national basis. These studies
should follow a well planned schedule and be repeated
periodically. In addition, it is also responsibility of
the Centre to promote the exchange of educational ex-
perience among the States and to co-ordinate the work
of different agencies for educational development
functioning at the State level.
84. Another responsibility of the Government of India is to
provide stimulating national leadership an educational
development. For this purpose; it should promote
educational research,' especially in the universities.
Financial assistance from the Centre should also be avai-
lable, both to State Governments and voluntary organi-
zation, for pilot projects or other experimental work of
national significance. Professional organizations in the
different fields, and especially national organizations of
teachers striving for improvement of education in different
areas, should receieve encouragement and Central assis-
tance. The Government of India should formulate the
National Policy on Education and revise it from time to
time. This will provide the broad guidelines for edu-
cational development in the States and form the basis of
Central grants for education.
85. Yet another responsibility of the Government of India
is to provide financial assistance for educational develop-
ment. It is necessary to increase the Central invest-
ment in education very considerably and to channel it
into three programmes. The first is to expand the Central
sector to a very great extent for the expansion of national
scholarships, development of agricultural, engineering
and medical education, promotion of educational
research and Sanskrit studies, establishment of institu-
tions specializing in social science and humanities and
increasing the allocations to the University Grants
Commission for centres of advanced study, schools of
education, postgraduate education and research, main-
tenance grants to State universities, qualitative improve-
ment of higher education and provision of student
180 Kothari Commission
services and amenities.
86 The second programme of Central aid is to the supple-
ment the Central sector by providing ear-marked Central
grants to State Governments for the development of
selected schemes of high priority. It may be desirable
to divide the total funds available with the Government
of India for giving ear-marked grants to State Govern-
ment into two parts. One part should be utilized for
giving ear-marked grants to State Governments for
schemes of national significance (e. g., the adoption of
Indian languages as media of education at all stages) and
the second part should be distributed of State Govern-
ments on some egalitarian basis and ear-marked for
such priority schemes as would be selected by the State
Government themselves.
87. The funds thus allocated to ear-marked grants should
be voted saparately by Parliament. There should be ade-
quate machinery to see that these are utilized for the
purpose for which they are granted and a report on their
utilization and the results achieved should be laid
annually before Parliament.
88. The third programme of Central aid is that the Centre .
and the States should annually share, in some agreed
proportion, the total expenditure incurred on the salaries
and allowances of teachers. This will enable the Centre
to give effect to a national policy regulating the remun-
eration of teachers which is so crucial to the quality of
education.
(33) The State Governments :
89. Education being a State subject. State Governments will
have to develop several important programmes to dis-
charge their responsibility in this field effectively.
90. They should prepare long-term and short-term plans of
educational development in their areas within the broad
framework of the national policy on education.
91. They should provide a statutory basis for education by
enacting comprehensive Education Acts which will re-
place all the miscellaneous laws and executive orders
(e. g., grant-aid code) which now exist.
92. Departments of Education in the State should be
National Policy on Education 1 81
stregthened considerably. The administrative structure
and procedures should be reformed to emphasize variety
and elasticity ruther than rigidity and uniformity. The
quality of personnel should be improved through an in-
crease in the number of posts at the high levels, reform
in recruitment procedures and provision of pre-service
and in service training. The basic scales of pay in the
administrative and teaching wings scould be made the
same in order to make a free flow of personnel between
teaching and administrative wings possible.
93. A centralized educational administration may not be
effective in many States. Besides, there are immense
variations of educational development between the
districts. It is therefore desirable to adopt the district
as the principal units for educational planning, adminis-
tration and development. The district education ofiicer
should be given adequate status and delegation of author-
ity, the main responsibility of the State-lavel Directorate
being general coordination and policy.
94. The bulk of the finances needed for educational develop-
ment will also have to be the State Governments. At
present, the State Governments raise 60 per cent of the
total educational expenditure which comes to about 22
per cent of their total resources, the individual variations
ranging from 16 to 39 per cent. In future, the total
educational expenditure of the State Governments will
be much larger and may come to about one-third to
one-half of their total resources.
(5) A programme for IMMEDIATE ACTION
Priorities :
182 ivothari Commission
of education at all stages and in all subjects in fivf
years.
(ii) The neighbourhood school system should be univer-
salised at the primary stage. Primary education
(class I- VII or VII) should be made free imme-
diately and free books should be provided to all
pupils. An intensive programme should be launched
for reduction of wastage and stagnation. Good
and effective primary education of at least five
yeary’ duration should be provided for every child
in all parts of the country as early as possible and
at any rate within a period of ten years.
(iii) The ten-year school, with a common curriculum
of general education, school be adopted in all parts
of the country. The new educational structure
should be adopted as early as possible in all areas
where the total duration of school and college edu-
cation leading to the first degree in arts, commerce
and science is 15 years or more. Where addition
of an years of schooling involved, as phased pro-
gramme should drawn up for the implementation
of the proposal.
(iv) Teachers’ status school be improved and the remu-
neration of all teachers, particularly at the school
stage should be upgraded. Programmes of teacher
education should be improved and expanded.
(v) Agricultural research and education at all levels'
should be developed on a priority basis. Both
technical education and technological research
should be taken closer to the industry; and a better
status in society and industry should be given to
the technician and his training improved.
(vi) Work-experience and national and social service
should be introduced as an integral part of all edu-
cation. A beginning may be made in about five
per cent of the institutions immediately and the
programme should be universalized in a period of
about the years.
(vii) Science education should be emphasized and scienti-
fic research should be promoted. In a phased
National policy on Education 183
programme spread over about ten years, science
and mathematics shoy^Id be made and integral part
of general education till the end of class X.
(viii) Emphasis should be . laid on the development of
essential student service, e. g., development of pro-
grammes of sports and games : building up of text-
book libraries in secondary schools, colleges and
universities, and appointment of joint committee of
teachers and students in colleges and universities to
deal with day-to-day problems.
(ix) Post-graduate education and research should be
improved and expanded. The programme of the
centres of advanced study should be developed
further and clusters of centres in related disciplines
should be created wherever possible.
(x) The provision of facilities for part-time and own-
time education should be expanded generously
at all stages.
(xi) The programmes of spreading education among
girls and the weaker sections of the community
should be expanded.
(xii) Intensive efforts should be made to spread literacy,
particularly in the age group 15-25.
(xiii) The recruitment policies of government should be
revised to reduce the pressures on higher education,
and the higher secondary stage of education should
be vocation alized to divert young persons into
different walks of life.
(xiv) In admissions to higher education, some allowance
should be made for the environmental handicaps of
students coming from rural areas, urban slums and
weaker sections of the community, and a more
equitable and egalitarian basis should be evolved
for the award of scholarships or grant of admission
to important institutions of higher education.
(xv) Programmes which need planning, organization
and human effort rather than money, e. g., promo-
ting national consciousness, character-formation,
intensive utilization of existing facilities, recogniza-
l84 Kothari Commission
lion of courses, improvement of curricula, adoption
of dynamic methods of teaching, examination re-
form and improvement of text books should be
developed in a big way and on a priority basis,
(xvi) Emphasis should be placed on the improvement
of educational administration and especially on the
adoption of the district as the principal unit for
planning, administration and development of
education, the system of school-groups, the moderni-
zation of the system of school supervision and the
organization of a nation wide programme of imp-
rovement of educational institution through
preparation and implementation of individual plans.
(35) Total Expenditure on Education :
96. It will be necessary to increase considerably to total
expendiure on education if this massive and urgent pro-
gramme of educational development is to be implemen-
ted. For this purpose, the best financial etfort should
be made by all the agencies involved— the Government
of India, the State Governments, the local authorities
and the voluntary organizations and the support of the
local communities should stimulated and fully utilized.
(36) Essential Conditions for Success :
97. Even with the maximum mobilization of resources, for
education however, the available funds will still be inad-
equate and for the some years to come, the development
of education will have to be brought about under condi-
tions of comparative scarcity. Several measures will
to be adopted to overcome this severe handicap. For
instance, the utmost economy should be practised in
everything. In particular the expenditure on buildings
should be reduced to the minimum by .using locally
available materials and by adoption of austere and uti-
litarian rather than ostentations standards. The cost
of equipment also should be reduced to the utmost by
better designing, large-scale production, improvization
and careful handling to increase its life. Wherever
possible, facilities should be shared in common by a
group of schools; and when equipment becomes costly
and sophisticated, it should be intensively and coopera-
National Policy on Education 1 85
tively utilized for the largest part of the day and through-
out the year.
Every effort should be made to utilize existing facilities
most intensively so to obtain full return on all the
investment made in education. The number of working
days should be increased and the working day should be
longer. The vacations should be adjusted to meet the
requirements of the institution and students or to enable
a better organization of programmes of work-experience
or national and social service. The libraries, laboratories
and craft sheds should be open all the year round and
for at least eight hours day, if not longer. All educa-
tional buildings should be put to intensive use and
utilized even in the vacations by designing suitable co-
curricular programmes.
There is urgent need for the proper planning of educa-
tional institutions to avoid overlapping and duplication
and to create larger institutions which. tend to be less
burdensome in cost per student. Well-considered
criteria should be prescribed for schools of all categories
and, their basis, careful plans of perspective educational
development, spread over the next 10-15 years, should be
prepared separately for each district. This becomes even
more important in higher education which is costlier and
where the required resources in men, money and mate-
rials are even more scarce. It should therefore be an
objective of policy to plan the location of colleges care-
fully and to establish bigger affiliated colleges, exceptions
being made only in the case of educationally under-
developed areas or in the initial years of the life of a
new institution. Similarly, careful coordination is
needed in the organization of "courses, training facilities
and research programmes in universities also. Consider-
ble restraint is needed in establishing new universities.
Adequate preparation should be made for the purpose,
and the general policy should be to establish university
centres in the first instance and to develop them into
universities in due course. No new university should be
started unless the consent of the University Grants
Commission has been obtained and adequate provision
of funds has been made.
i86 Kothari commissioii
100. It will also be necessary to adopt new and unorthodox
techniques which give quick results of reduce costs.
Emphasis should be laid on such measures as the large
scale development of part-time and own-time education,
the use of mass media and modern techniques, pro-
grammed instruction and the more backward ones.
101. Perhaps the most important measure to overcome the
handicaps of an ‘economy of scarcity’ is to create a
climate of dedication and sustained hard work so that
students, teachers and administrators invest ‘themselves’
in their tasks to make up for the shortcomings in mate-
rial resources. These seems to be a pervading atmos-
phere of cynicism at present. But a developing country
like ours cannot afford such luxuries. Idealism — for
there is no better word — is needed in our country, now
more than ever, in every sphere of life, and especially
in education. The reconstruction of education thus
present a supreme challenge to all of us who are now called
upon ta create a system of education related to the life,
needs and aspirations of the people and to maintain it at
the highest level of eflBciency. It is upon our response
to this challenge that the future of the country depends.
22
A Panorama of Decade
1 . EDUCATION AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT.
Ours is the country known by the name of India ; ours is the
nationality — Indian; ours is the constitution which has a common
goal of achieving justice — social, economic and political; freedom-
of expression of thought, of development and availing opportu-
nities; achievement of integration — nation, social and emotional;
attaining the common bonds of fraternity and unity.
Needless to say that all these ideals and goals cannot be
achieved until and unless we do not overhaul the entire curri-
culum, methods of teaching, rather the entire system of education
with our national objectives in view. It is a bare truth that uni-
formity at all standards of education to bring out a coordination
in the prevailing system of system— which is eventually a state
subject in the dire need of the hour.
The Population explosion :
There is population explosion and that has left a vacuum in
providing, the equalization of opportunities in the realm of
education. The ratio between the teacher and the taught is in-
adequate. Dearth of food-grains, economic development, lack of
employment opportunities, W'ide gap between the previledged,
domination of the narrow loyalties under the guise of ideology,
religion, language, state, caste, creed etc. are some of the
hurdles which require immediate consideration with a concrete
follow up programme if, national reconstruction is to be made
with sincere efforts so that we may not only be able to solve the
gignatic problems; our country is facing at present but also raise
the status of BHARAT at intermediate level.
Education and social change :
Education is a powerful tool for social change. Society goes
on under a continuous process of change. Emerson was right
188 Kothari Commission
when lie assisted that it is not wealth or high pillers which make
a nation. It is really education which makes a man. Education
can build a nation and can lead the entire nation on the path
of progress. It is only through education that we can inculcate
the feelings of self sacrifice, patriotism, critical and analytical
thinking, character building etc; which may ultimately trans-
form an individual and the society as a whole. For that we
will have to evolve a national policy on education. History
gives an evidence that it is only the educated elite which has
brought a change in the sociophere. Education trains the mind
and leads an individual towards critical thinking and anological
outlook.
Education is not something which may be discussed in an
isolated watertight compartment; it requires aims, contents,
teaching points, students, teacher, time-table, vocational effi-
ciency. Keeping fnview the needs of society and the national
objectives and e.xploitation of the man power to raise the status of
the country in the international sphere.
The national development has its base in economic progress
and productivity. If we want to bring out a social change, we
will have to touch cultural as well as economic spheres. We will
have to see the modernization without sacrificing the gems of our
rich cultural heritage.
Education and Productivity :
Only a handful elite dominate all walks of the public life.
This control is due to the ignorance of the people. Previledged
always rule over unpreviledged and former have been exploiting
them like any thing. This tendency has been widening the gap
between haves and have nots. The social unrest caused through
this, can only be removed if the following programmes are to be
implemented :
— Science as a basic component of education and culture,
Work experience as an integral part of general education,
especially at the secondary school level to meet the needs
of industry, agriculture and trade; and— improvement of
scientific and technological education and research at the
university stage with special emphasis on agriculture and
allied sciences.
As far the question of the adoption of science along with the
culture, Bharat is following the same from times immemorial. It is
A Panorama or Decade 189
only ignorance which is giving impetus to the technology based
on experience rather than science. Work experience is a system
which provide opportunities for the self emdloyment and prepare
a man for the job in his future and present. That is why commi-
ssion visualised for vocationalization of secondary education.
Social and national integration :
There is a lot of diversity in our country. Language, pro-
vincialism, factionalism, regionalism, religion have been dis-
turbing the nation’s peace and order. National integration can
only be achieved through cultural and moral integration. This
needs stability in character. For this following programmes
should be implemented :
— introducing a common school system of public education.
— making social and national service an integral part of
education at all stages.
— developing all modern Indian languages and taking neces-
sary steps to enrich Hindi as quickly as possible so that it
is able to function effectively as the official language of the
union, and
— promoting national consiousness.
Modernization and education :
We can breath in a traditional society but we can’t live the
life in it in the sense of term. In the fast running world, there
is always struggle for existence. We can exist only when we go a
head by maintaining the progress of science and teconology.
‘Indian society of today is heir to a great culture. Unfortunately,
however, it is not an adequately educated society and unless it
becomes one, it will not be able to modernize itself and to res-
pond appropriately to new challanges of national reconstruction
or take its rightful place in country of nations’. The commission
says. For achieving this aim the establishment of six major
universities has been recommended.
Social, moral and spiritual values :
Modernization does not mean that the social moral and
spiritual values be neglected and not given due importance. It is
the age of conflict of culture, materialism and ethical values. . It
is the conflict between discerning and nondiscerning, between
values, pattern and concepts and man is missing his path.
Now, education should be accepted as a powerful means of
social revolution. There should be radical change in education. We
190 Kothari Commission
need qualify but along with aetion. There should be close co-
orditiafion of plan and execution. We have to go, rather rush
with the world in this race. It is a challenge, but who will accept
it you, he or I — Legislative members, students, teachers. Govern-
ment, public— who. Who will decide this fate ?
2. EDUCATION AND NATIONAL OBJECTIVES
‘India’s destiny is being shaped in her class rooms’. Kothari
Commission started his report with this statement. It has pre-
pared 20 years Educational Plan. Commission visualises educa-
tion as a continuous process. National development was the
main aim of this commission which was based on complete
centralisation having faith in decentralization. In this educa-
tional plan private incentive has totally been ignored. Thus
through the educational plan we could not prepare such a struc-
ture which would be enable to make ‘Man’ in real sense. The
proposed frame work has justified to reconstruct a mecha-
nism but what should be achieved, it was lost. The fact is that
the current of concious education which was a hand maid to
make ‘Man’ has disappeared.
Western thinkers believe in mind or intelligence while Indian
thinkers believe in the existence of soul. Soul is super concious,
immortal and indestrictable which makes a man social being in
the true sense of the term. Swami Vivekanand has rightly
remarked — mind can not be taught any such thing which is not
already in existence though in another form not clearly visible.
Therefore, the development of body, mind and soul is the real
process of education. The general tendency of man is to satisfy lust
and lust is the indication of hedonism which lays stress on en-
joyment. Education teaches the spirit of self-sacrifice instead of
selfishness, social welfare instead of selfish end. A Harmonious
development includes emotional training for which discrimination,
imagination, introspection, analysis, comparison and the power
to reach a logical conclusion etc., etc. which need adequate deve-
lopment so that there may be a proper coordination among
knowing wilting and action.
National hedonism is the base of Kothari Commission’s
thinking. Commission believes in material progress. Education
is a most powerful tool for social change. Education, which is
related with the productivity, science and technology, work
A Panorama of Decade 191
experience, vocationalization and industrialization can lead to-
wards the socio economic revolution. Through achieving this end
we may be integrated socially and nationally. We may develop
the basic human values — social, moral and spiritual. We should
always remember the verse of Geeta — ‘The two fold path was
given by Me. O Sinless one, to the world in the beginning — The
pat h oC Jcnowledge to ,the discerning, the path o f work to the
active,’^
3. SOME SALIENT DEVELOPMENTS
(i) Evaluation of teachers by students® — University Vice-
Chacellors, college principals and eminent educationists in the
country have expressed divergent views on a suggestion that stu-
dents in autonomous colleges should evaluate their teachers to
find out whether the later were performing their jobs properly.
Four workshop, organised by the University Grant Com-
mission and attended by Vice-Chancellors, teachers, students,
and education administrators, had recommended that “the pro-
cess of assessment of students should be continuous and the
students in turn may also anonymously conduct evaluation of the
teachers with a view to assessing the efficiency of teachers in the
teaching process. Such a feeback mechanism is necessary to
identify weakness and deficiencies in instruction so that con-
tinuous improvement could be effected.
Several of the academicians, whose views were sought by
pressmen, reacted favourably to the recommendation. Some of
them were, in fact, very enthusiastic about it. but invariably all
of them had certain reservations and warned that if the proposed
innovatiod was misused it could prove disastrous.
Calicut University’s acting Vice-Chancellor Sukumar
Azhikode said : ‘I believe that teacher assessment by the student
in neither a fanciful nor an ideal concept, but one that is highly
realistic. In every classroom this goes on while a teacher is en-
gaged in teaching. Any teacher would strive to derive the admi-
ration, affection and regard of the student, which it the result of
^ 3rf?Tr?T
The Bhagwad Geeta; Swami Chidbhavanand; Sri Ram Krishna Tapo-
vanam, Tirupparaitturai. P. 212 (1974).
2, Hindustan Times Dated July 21. 1975.
192 Kothari Commission
an informal assessment’ of the teacher by the student. Most of
the tcaclicrs arc subtly inspired by it.”
But he warned that if this assessment is elevated into an
administrative weapon by, which the merit of a teacher is solely or
partly adjudged. It may prove very mischievous. Students are
immature and easily swayed by political and social pressure, and
assessment by such a class may lead to even victimisation of
teachers. A teacher may be liked or disliked for many reasons,
but it will be wrong to make students arbitrater of the professional
destiny of teachers.”
Right Judges’ — Dr. K. Madhavan Kuty, principal Tri-
vandrum Medical College, welcomed the proposal of students
assessing their teachers primarily because, as of now, there is no
method of assessing the work of teacher, except for a degree
“Teaching,” to put it in another way,” is one profession that
does not require a licence.”
Whole heartedly welcoming the proposal. Prof. O. P. Israel,
principal of the Government Science College, and Sister Jasmine
Marie, principal, Mount Carmel College for Women, (both in
Bangalore) agreed that students were the right judges of their
teachers.
Prof. Israel said the proposal could be implemented by
issuing carefully planned questionnaries to the students.
However, they felt that teachers generally would not like to
be evaluated by their students.
Prof. J.B.Mallaradya, a prominent Bangalore educationist,
says that “teachers should welcome such an evaluation in their
own interest and those of their pupils. But, he felt that the
process of assessment was not ordinarily within the reach of an
ordinary student. Only a student who had himself attained a high
standard of proficiency could tell whether a particular teacher
was good or bad.
Mr. A.G. Sharma, Registrar of Indore university, endorshing
the recommendation, observes ; “This will make teachers more
responsible towards their duties. There will be a healthier dia-
logue and closer contact between the teachers and the taught,
which is all four the good of the concerned parties.”
Dr. N. K. Panikkar, Vice Chancellor of Cochin University,
says that the idea of student evaluation of teachers is certainly
A Panorama of Decade 193
good, but its scope and value should be restricted to “evaluation
of the teacher’s competence to put across or rather communicate
to a level which is received properly by the students.’’ However,
he conceded that it will worsen the already vitiated atmosphere
between students and teachers.
Mrs. Madhuri Shah, Vice-Chancellor, S.N.D.T. Women’s
University, Bombay, favoured the idea but cautioned that “all
this should be done in a subtle way and not in a manner which
will run down the teachers.”
Welcoming the recommendation. Prof. P.J.Madan, Vice-
Chancellor of Maharaja Sayajirao University, Baroda, said : eva-
luation should be done by the post-graduate or final year degree
students because they were more matured and responsible. He
pointed out that the assessment report should be kept confidential
by the dean of the college. He said that the weakness of the
teachers should be brought to their notice for their improvement
and not for victimisation. The opinion of a majority of students
should be considered and not of a small group of students, he
added.
Teaching ability — Osmania University Vice-Chancellor P.
Jaganmohan Reddy feels that evaluation of teachers by students
was not only desirable but also essential for the development of
higher education. He flaunted a letter from a female student to
show that the students were quite capable of assessing their
teachers.
While describing the recommendation as “not a bad idea”
the general secretary of the West Bengal College and University
Teachers’ Association, Calcutta. Prof. Dilip Chakrabarty said— it
should be implemented on an experimental basis in a few selected
colleges where only brilliant students got admission after a
thorough screening.
Calcutta University Vice-Chancellor Dr. Satyendra Nath Sen
said-the opinion of the students should be taken into consideration
but in any case it should not be the last or the only word to
assess the performance of a teacher.
The Bhopal University Vice-Chancellor. Dr. Ravi Prakash,
has blessed the recommendation — “because this is the correct and
just method. Students are the best judges of their teachers’
ability. It will help because those who are good, will feel
194 Kolhari Commission
encouraged tliat lliey have been judged rightly. Others will try to
improve themselves.”
While Vice-Chancellor of Jabalpur University R. S. Naidu
favoured the recommendation, Vice-Chancellor of Jawaharlal
Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya E.B. Rainboth disapproved it on
the ground that ‘‘the students have neither developed the res-
ponsibility nor the maturity for such an ‘evaluation.”
Mr. Rainboth said the back ground appears to be that the
present day teachers laek the responsibility to do their job. By
large, this may not be applicable to all teachers. Quite a
and large percentage of teachers do take their work very seriously.
But it is not denied that there are teachers who are not worth
their salt. Any amount of evaluation by students or otherwise
would not ipmrove such teachers.”
Vice-Chancellor of Rajasthan University G. C. Pandey main-
tained that he did not favour the idea of the teachers being
evaluated by the students. This was so, he added, because the
majority of the students were just not in a position to judge the
quality of the teaching. Specialy during these days when the
student would want teaching to be simply examination-oriented
and would try to judge a teacher only from the examination angle,
they would prefer a teacher who could dictate notes, digesting
^formation question-wise.
Dr. Pandey said that idea, if implemented, would only put a
premium on the types of teachers who indulged in politicking
among students or fawned upon them.
Principals of leading colleges in Bangalore also expressed
divergent views on the proposal.
Prof. M.P.L. Sastri, principal of M.E.S. College, Malles-
warams strongly disapproved the proposal as he felt that the
students, being at the receiving end, would be prejudicial in their
assessment and would prove to be the wrong judges of teachers.
‘Barring a few intelligent students, students, by and large, were not
capable of evaluating teachers.’ he said.
Prof. P.S.Ambica Devi, principal of the Government Maha-
rani’s College said — Students generally were not mature enough to
assess their teacher, however, the proposal could be implemented
at the post-graduate level where students show more maturity.
A Panorama of Decade ] 95
Dr. M.B. Buch, Head of the Centre of Advanced Study in
Education of the M.S. University of Baroda, expressed scepticism
about the recommendation. He said that such a measure would
develop a sense of “insecurity” among teachers because “we do
not have a tradition of teachers being evaluated by students,”
Secondly, Dr. Buch pointed out, “we do not have responsible
students interested in higher education and hence irresponsible
rowdies would take advantage of the scheme to bring down the
teachers.”
(ii) New Education Pattern^ : 10+2+3 — The new 10 plus 2
plus 3 education pattern is being introduced in the Union Terri-
tory from this academic year (1975).
The introduction of the new system has been made com-
pulsory for all recognised and aided schools.
Though the new pattern is being accepted not without reluc-
tance, its introduction in Government schools, too, does not seem
to be on a happy note.
The general apprehension is that the whole thing is going
to end up in a mess, not because the pattern is not good but be-
cause the preparation for introducing the pattern is inadequate.
There is a lot of uncertainty about the availability of books
prescribed in the new syllabi and the adequate of the present
teaching staff to switch over to the new pattern without the
required orientation.
There are three major problems in the way of the new system.
The first is the deep rooted' suspicion among the teaching staff
that the Administration had not given any categorical assurance
on the absorption of the teachers rendered surplus. Everyone
agrees that the introduction of the new pattern will make some of
the teaching staff surplus. This is going to happen when quite a
number of higher secondary schools will be downgraded to the
high school level. The principals and the post-graduate teachers
then would become surplus. The point is conceded even by the
officials of the Education Department.
The officials also know that the Government run higher
secondary schools, too, would not have the capacity to absorb all
the surplus staff. The downgranding might be avoided in the
Governme nt schools but it could not be stopped in the aided
1 , Hindustan Times, Dated April 11 , 1975 .
196 Kolhari Commission
scliools. Tlic reason for il is that the aided schools do not have
the necessary financial potential to meet the additional eost of
introducing the new pattern. It would involve vocational teachers,
additional accommodation of training equipment.
It was naturally expected that the aided schools would prefer
down grading rather than incurring the additional heavy ex-
penditure. The only way they could be persuaded to accept the
new system is by promising them a 100 per cent grant for
additional expenditure, which at present is not possible for the
Administration.
The school hurdle is the text-books. Though the National
Councial of Educational Research and Training has promised
to print all the required text-books, it does not seem feasible since
already it has failed to print two Hindi books needed for the
1976 examination.
And the third problem is whether the present staff would
be able to cope with the new syllabi and that the students enter-
ing the ninth class in the new pattern would be able to bear the
burden of the extra heavy syllabus prescribed.
Another objection by the professional bodies of teachers is
that it was humanly impossible to teach such a large number of
subjects with extensive contents witin a seven-period week pres-
cribed for each subject. The officials, however, are of the view
that the contents of the subjects could be lightend.
A real technical difficulty will be to evolve a time-table that
should cater to the need of the new pattern in the ninth class
while it also feeds the old pattern for the tenth and eleventh
classess. Such a time-table had not been evolved so far.
The training part of the new pattern has also come in for
criticism. It is said that the absence of arrangements with
factories no worth while work experience could be gained by the
students in the school laboratories.
(Hi) New Education Pattern Develops Peasonality^ — The pre-
sent system of school examinations will go with the adoption of
the new pattern to 10 years' schooling. This will also eliminate
the high school and the higher secondary school examinations
conducted by the respective Boards and other Central agencies.
J. Hindustan Times. Dated August 20, 1975,
A Panorama of Decade 197
In its place, a new system of evaluation would be introduced.
The main object being to fund out where the “framework” of edu-
cation has failed, and to remedy the defect.
This is one of the salient features of the broad national frame-
work of education evolved at the two-day conference on school
curriculum.
Another significant feature is the teaching of science and
technology as compulsory subjects at schools. But science would
include social sciences. The physical sciences, too, would be
taught in a more practical way.
Prof Rais said the basic approach was to “bring education
near to life”. There was no doubt that the present system of edu-
cation. suffered from social and academic maladies, and it was
now sought to be corrected by bringing about an ‘academically
feasible and coherent pattern so that education could serve the
new social purpose”.
The new broad guidelines had by and large been accepted by
the States in principle, with the assurance that they would be
implemented. In fact, some of the States had gone beyond the
take-off stage,” he claimed.
To bring about a social, human approach to education,
it was essential to give a cultural basis to the whole system.
Also, attention should be paid to morals and ethics.
Equally important is the accent on work experience in the
framework, which would aim at making children learn things.
The idea, is to develop total personality.
The new guidelines have adopted the three- language formula,
mainly on the consideration that new controversies should be
avoided.
Replying to a question. Prof. Rais said the conference did
not favour Prof. Nurul Hasan’s suggestion of a two-level syllabus
for school education. The consensus was to have a common
core programme, with the facility of additional courses according
to the ability of the child.
Prof Rais agreed that there would be practical difficulties m
adopting' the new guidelines-finances for science education and
good teachers for the new integrated system. He said human
life was itself a laboratory and there
“artificial” devices for experiments m a laboratory. The basic
198 Kolhari Commission
object is to bring about a “qualitative change’* in education.
Reverting to tlie abolition of the examination system, Prof.
Rais said the new scheme of evaluation could be introduced in
phases spread over five years.
Asked if NCERT would prepare text-books for the new
system, Prof. Rais said it would supply “model material” on en-
vironmental studies, leaving scope for detailed adoption by the
States and educational institutions themselves.
(iv) Studpid Assumptions^ — As for the wrong arguments ad-
vanced, chief among them is the alleged need for natural unifor-
mity. This, it is claimed, facilities migration of students and
promotes national integration. We do not have to dragroon a
whole generation in order to enable a few hundred students to.
move from one part of the country to another. There are simpler
expedients available, such as testing the migrating student at the
new institution to ascertain the level of his academic proficiencies.
Uniformity is not needed for promoting national integration
either. If we could determine the academic capabilities expected
of students at the three stages, (a) of leaving secondary school,
(b) of entering the university or going into careers that need no
university training, and (c) of obtaining there first degree, and if
such standards were high enough to be internationally acceptable,
we could leave regional systems, and even individual schools and
colleges,, to achieve those standards in their own way, more effi-
ciently and expeditiously than any national system could pres-
cribe in terms of years spent in school and college. The unity
promoted by keeping the agile ones back so as to keep step with
the slow ones cannot be of any high value.
The real case for the ten-plus-two-plus-three pattern is in the
use of the two-year course as a means of raising our academic
standards. The period between high school and the first degree
course holds the key to the urgent transformation we seek in the
quality of our education. It could be used for ; (1) correcting,
and making up for, the deficiencies of what was done in high
school, particulary in basic skills such as languages and mathe-,
matics : (2) equipping students with adequate productive skills
so as to enable them, if they so choose, to go straight into the
1. V. V- John : Twelve Years To College. Hindustan Times.
May 20, 1975,
A Panorama of Decade 199
job market; and (3) sending students up for further professional
or academic courses at the university, so well equipped as to oblige
the university to raise the standards of the first degree. To
achieve this threefold objective, the two-year course will have to
be both ambitious and flexible. Its combination of vocational
and academic studies should enable the student to discover his
own aptitudes and help him to choose an occupation or a course
of further studies. It should be possible for the able student to
do it in less than two years on the basis of the evidence of
achievement he produces, and for the weaker student to stay
longer, without the ignominy of failure, and acquire, at the pace
of which he is capable, the proficiencies needed for jobs or for
further studies. The system should also provide for the student
to ‘stop out’ for a period, if he so chooses, involve himself in
the world of work, and then return for further studies. At the
end of the two-year course, there could be a choice of exami-
nations for the students, depending on whether they seek en-
trance into the world or employment or into professional or
academic studies at a higher level. The certification could also
be varied to suit different categories of students.
It will be found by curriculum-makers and teachers that
what is now being done in 11 years of the higher secondary
pattern can, by pruning what is non-essential, be put into 10
years of school, and that a great part of what is now being done
in our three-year degree courses can be done in two years. The
present curricula at the school and college levels are highly re-
petitive. This is one pf the reasons why most students are able
to do a year’s course in a month or two of intensive study before
the annual examinations. The performance of non-collegiate
or ‘private’ candidates at these examinations also indicates
that the present courses need only part-time attention. One of
the functions of the two-year course should be to expose the
pretentious vacuity of the present first degree courses, cover a
great part of whatever is meaningful in those courses even before
a student enters the university, and thus compel the universities to
design new first degree courses to replace the existing ones that
have won such international disrepute.
These high objectives cannot be achieved if, even as a transi-
tional expedient, the two-year course is spilt 'nto. or...
staying with high schools and the other being attached to college.
200 Kotliari Commission
Tims migln educational bureaucrats seek to tailor the status quo
into seeming compliance with the new decision. Any one-plus-
onc arrangement will prevent meaningful curricular reform at this
crucial stage of the new pattern. We may end by taking 15 years
to do what is now being done in 14, and could be done in much
less.
(v) Two Level Syllabus^ — The Union Education Minister,
Mr. Nurul Hasan suggested to the national conference on
school curriculum to consider seriously the possibility of in-
troducing two level syllabus in science, mathematics and social
sciences under the new pattern of education.
One syllabus for these three subjects to be taught during the
first 10 years could be for average students and the other for those
W’bo had special apitude and who wanted to go for further study
and research.
He w'as not envisaging hard and division at the end of
the 8tb standard as it existed under the old system. The two
levels could be evolved in a manner which would enable students
passing in syallabus A to go for B by making up deficiencies
through some well thought out methods.
Pointing out the drawbacks in the old system, Mr. Hasan
said the education commission had rightly emphasised the need
for compulsory teaching science and maths in schools. No
country could afford to have a situation in which a few people
acquired all the skills and the masses in general remained semi-
skilled and unskilled workers.
The resolution on scientific policy adopted by the Govern-
ment long ago under the inspiration of Jawaharlal Nehru was
still highly valuable and teachers and parents should bring this
resolution to the notice of the younger generation, he added.
The Minister told the authorities concerned that work ex-
perience as envisaged under new system was not just another
subject. It had to be designed in a manner which would promote
production skill. It was necessary that students acquired some
basic capacity to use modern tools like electronics, he said.
He emphasised the need of involving the community in the
successful implementation of the use new pattern. He also
1 Prof. Nurul Hasan. Minister of Education, Govt of India.
Hindustan Times. Dated August 19, 1975.
A f*arn6rama of Decade 20l
Suggested to the conference to consider the Possibility of evolving
extra optional subject which could be useful to students.
Emphasising the importance of the new pattern of education,
the Minister said it was agreed by all since independence that
the education system suffered from colonial and feudal outlook
and that radical were called for.
He also laid stress on evolving a pattern which was accep-
table to teachers and parents in particular and the community in
general.
(vi) Autonomy of College : The commission recommends
that each university should recognise the freedom and autonomy
of the colleges affiliated to it in the same spirit as it wants
autonomy itself. The proper sphere of university autonomy lies
in the selection of students, the appointment and promotion
of teachers, determination of courses of study, methods of teaching
and the selection of areas and problems of research.
It recommends the setting up of committee of management
with wider administrative and financial powers in each university
department. The report says that degree offered by one university
should be automatically recognised by all other universities in the
country. There should be co-operation and division of labour
among universities in the use of costly equipment and where there
is a shortage of qualified teachers. ,
To prevent over-production or a series shortfall of qualified
man-power in any sphere, the Commission recommends that
suitable machinery be set up for consolation between the univer-
sities, the University Grants Commission, the Inter University
Board and the Government as regards the numbers to be trained
and the courses of study to be adopted to meet national require-
rSoolT a' Vice-Chancellor, the report recommends that
^he De hi procedure” or some variation of it be adopted. The
el\Lco'’nnciioraumversit,^^|dc.
ri.tidtt^rs-ota'SlSt/rdlt'ermine the courses of stud,-
and standards. available and
Enrolments should "'“'f ,3 3 i,a,e uhich is to
affiliation should be regarded by colleges as a p
be continually earned and deserved.
^02 Kodiari Commission
(vii) Lifcracy Campaign : The Commission recommends
a nalionwidc campaign to end illiteracy within 20 years. It
says c\'cry cfTort sliouid be made to raise the percentage of
literacy to 60 by 1971, 80 percent by 1976 and lOO percent in
20 years.
The report says that under a compulsory national service
programme school and college students should be required to
participate in tlic campaign.
To launch an effective adult education programme each uni-
versity should establish a board as well as a department of adult
education, the report recommends. Voluntary agencies working
in this field should be given financial and technical encourage-
ment.
The Commission recommends that India should work to-
wards a stage when all education will be free. For the present
children should be able to receive free tuition in the primary and
lower secondary stage, preferably by the end of fourth and
fifth plans respectively.
With regard to higher .secondary and university fees’ the
main effort in the 10 years should be to extend the benefit of free
education to needy and deserving students.
Top priority should be given to providing free text-books at
the primary stage. Book banks should be developed in secondary
schools and institutions for higher education.
The Commission calls for the reduction of other costs of
education and the provision of instructional material to children
free of charge.
(viii) National Policy^ : The Commission does not favour
putting education on the Concurrent List of the Constitutions as
this would “fragment education” with one part in Concurrent and
the other in the State List.
An extensive effort should be made to exploit fully the exis-
ting provisions of the Commission for the development of edu-
cation and evaluation of a national educational policy. The prob-
lem may then be reviewed again after 10 years, it says.
The immediate national policy, the commission says, should
be to associate the local communities, namely village panchayats
in rural areas and municipalities is urban areas, with their local
schools and to make them responsible for the provision of all
non teachers costs with the help of a suitable grant-in aid from
1. See Chapter 21.
A Panorama of Decade 203
It recommends the constitution of districts below the univer-
sity level. The jurisdiction of the boards should cover the entire
area excepting big municipalities. A Senior State Government
Officer should be the whole time seceretary of such a board.
In towns with a population of one lakh or more, it would be
desirable to establish municipal boards on the lines of district
boards. They would be autonomous in day-to-day administration
and maintain an education fund.
The Union Government should establish institutions specia-
lizing in social sciences and humanities in close association with
universities. It should also develop education in Union Territories
to serve as a pace-setter for the other areas. It should expand
centrally sponsored schemes to stimulate educational develop-
ments in the national interest in crucial sectors.
(ix) Private Enterprise : Private enterprise in the field of
education has a limited role, but the State should utilize it, the
commission says. It suggests that National Council of Edu-
cational Research and Training should be developed as the prm
cipal technology agency functioning at the national level to
improve school education.
- To co-ordinate educational programmes at the State level,
the commission recommends statutory council of education with
the State Education Minister as the chairman. It also recom-
mended a standing committee at the officer’s level with the edu-
cation secretary as the chairman. The commission wants the
present practice of selecting an eminent educationist as education
secretary to continue.
The Indian Education Service should be a service agency to
teaching and research. At the junior level, only one third of the
posts should be filled by direct recruitment. The remaining should
be filled partly by direct recruitment and partly by promotion at
the level of the senior and higher scales.
■ The Commission says, the idea of creating a teaching wing in
the IBS should be abandoned as there are “insuperable difficulties .
An adequate number of posts comparable to the higher scales of
pay in the IBS should be created in the universities and colleges
to prevent a drain of talent from teaching and research to admini-
stration.
.The commission recommends that education should be given
204 Kodiari Commission
a statutory basis in all States and Union Territories. The acts
should be comprehensive and place all the miscellaneous laws
which exist. The commission wants the Union Government
to issue a statement on the national policy to guide State
Governments and local authorities in implementing educational
plans. The possibility of passing a National Educational Act
may also be examined.
(x) Teaching Methods ; The commission suggests the Uni-
versity Grants Commission should appoint a special committee
to examine the problems of teaching methods in higher education.
The commission holds that improvement in teaching methods
should aim at discouraging cramming and stimulating curiosity,
problem solving ability and originality. It recommends the setting
up of a central examination reform unit by the University Grant
Commission to work in colloboration with the universities.
At all teaching universities and at the major universities, set
syllabuses and external examinations should be replaced by a
system of internal and continuous evaluation by the teachers
themselves.
Talented students from major universities, the commission
says, should be induced to join the teaching profession, and the
majority of them should be placed in colleges other than their
own so that they can help rise standards.
The report calls for forging strong ties among major univer-
sities, advanced centres and affiliated colleges.
Efforts should be made to strengthen and expand the UGC
programme to establish the centres for advanced studies.
“Clusters’ of advanced centres should be established at the most
promising universities. Fifty such centres, some in modern Indian
languages and one in educations, should be established in the next
five to 10 years.
By the end of the Fourth Plan 50 of the best colleges should
be made autonomous if they are willing to accept this status, the
commission says. Nothing is done in this respect.
The universities should develop a sense of social responsibi-
lity among the intelligentia through the analysis of social,
economic and cultural problems with which modern man is faced.
At least six major universities should be developed to make
first class post-graduate work and research of international
A Panorama of Decade 205
standard possible. The major universities should be selected
from among the existing ones and should include one of the
Indian institutes of technology and one agricultural university.
An energetic search should be made throughout the country
for outstanding and promising persons to be recruited as teaching
and research staff in the major universities.
(xi) External Examination : The first public external exami-
nation should come at the end of the first 10 years of schooling,
which should provide a general education without specialization.
No attempt should be made at specialization until beyond class X.
Secondary schools should be of two types-high schools
providing a 10 year course and higher secondary schools
providing a course of 11 or 12 years.
The Commission recommends that only the bigger and more
eflBcient schools — about one fourth of the total— should be upgra
ded. The existing higher secondary schools should be downgraded
if they do not deserve that status.
A new higher secondary course, beginning in class XI, should
be started. Classes XI and XII (and during the transitional
period class XI only) should provide specialized studies in different
subjects. Where, however, existing schools with integrated course
in classes IX, X and XI are running satisfactorily, the
arrangement may continuous until Class XII is added.
The pre-university course should be transferred from uni-
versities and affiliated colleges to secondary schools by 1975-76
and the duration of the course should be increased to two years by
1985-86. The University Grants Commission should be
responsible for affecting this transfer.
Simultaneously, higher secondary class or classes should be
started in selected schools by State Education Department as
self contained units and assisted with adequate recurring grants.
Boards of secondary education should be reconstituted to
accept the responsibility for the higher secondary stage also.
Students will step off from the general stream of education
into vocational courses at two points— the end of class seven or
eight and the end of Class X. Provision should be made for
vocational courses 1 to 3 years’ duration at the lower and
higher secondary stages.
206 Kothari Commission
fxii) Comments on ‘the Report’ by V. V. Jobn.^ : Following
arc some of the important comments from “A Report on
Report” by V. V. John.
1. Most people approached the recommendations of the
Commission with certain healthy scepticism. The re-
commendations call for administrative action, that, other
things being as before, we dread. But the text of the
report spells out the attitudes and the thinking behind
the recommendations and, though one sometimes wishes
they had not spoken in the tones of patent schoolmaster
in ‘an idiot school’ the attitudes are largely reassuring
2. I would suggest that no administrator should be per-
mitted to implement any of the recommendations until
he has gone through the intellectual exercise of trying to
tear the Commission’s arguments to pieces and of being
finally converted to the commission’s point of view.
If he does not agree with the commission’s thinking and
its recommendation on any particular point, he should
be free to seek other solution.
3. In important respects our attitude to Commissions is
different from that of the Britishers who invented them.
XXX By the look of it the Kothari Commission’s
Report is likely to be on our conscience for a long time
to come.
4. In the event, the largest of the world’s domocracies
gave itself the largest written constitution in the world.
We have now matched it with largest ever Report on
Education and National Development.
5. The Report is some-thing less than an encylopaedia (on
educational development) and considerably more than a
book. X X X In the fact, the whole report is more or less
in the same idiom as the Government of India’s Resolu-
tion setting up the Commission.
6. The wittiest thing in the book is the passage of Dr.
Kothari’s covering letter to Mr. Chagla in which he
apologizes for the size of the Report— “It could have
t V. V. John— ‘A Report on Report.’ Hindustan Times— dated 30-8-1966'
Panorama of Decade 207
been shorter”, he says, “but that would have cost more
money and time and delayed action.”
7. The Report does speak of teacher initiative and the
freedom to experiment at all levels of education.
8. The report allows, for instance, ten years for the general
adoption of an advance curriculum (equivalent to the
present higher secondary standard) in class I to X. Expe-
rience in other countries indicates that the change-over
to higher standards could be much quicker. We have
erred top long and to woefully through understanding
the capacity of the pupils.
The “pace-setting” that the Commission is looking for
should be done by the most ambitious and heterodox
institutions and teachers, and the administrators may be
advised to get out of their way.
(xiii) Experiment in Adult Education : A Message in SITE^
Some years ago foreign observer noted that there were two things
India might do to refurbish its image : stage a nuclear explosion
or establish a national television net work. It has done both.
The Pokharan blast was admittedly for peacefnl purposes while
the incipient national TV network has taken a significant step
forward with the inauguration of the Satellite Instructional
Television Experiment.
SITE is a unique experiment of international significance and
the eyes of communicators, planners and- administrators round
the world will be on India this next year for the duration of this
collaborative undertaking. Thanks are due to NASA (the US
space agency) for the “loan” of the powerful ATSF satellite now
“beamed” on India with its one-video twin-audio channel, the
UNDP, and others who have helped in a variety of ways.
The major task and responsibility is that of a number of
Indian agencies including ISRO and AIR and a host of pro-
gramme participants at the Centre and in Andhra, Karnataka,
Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan — the six States
in which direct-reception TV sets are being located in clusters of
400 villages each in relatively backward and disadvantaged
districts. Villages in Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat will
also be served through existing and some newly-created facilities.
1. Hindustan Times : Editorial,
208 Kothari Commission
The very multiplicity of linguistic, agro-climatic and socio-cultura)
regions involved suggests the complexity and delicacy of the ex-
periment which is to use TV as an aid to development. This was
Vikram Sarabhai’s dream.
Agriculture, pre-primary and teacher training, health,
hygiene, family planning and nutrition, and general interest and
social education programmes will be telecast daily to unsophisti-
cated audiences hitherto beyond easy reach of new ideas. An
assumed rural population of around 2‘5 million will be able to
view SITE in the six clusters, and many more elsewhere. The
resuis could be fascinating and will be watched with the greatest
interest. If the message truly goes home, then the growing TY-
radio network can in tandem be used increasingly as a develop-
ment aid in a variety of ways. A rural-urban interchange, as the
Prime Minister put it, would also integrate the nation. The
country’s TV programmers and extension workers have a tremen-
dous challenge and opportunity before them.
Among the many handicaps of developing society is the
“communication gap” it faces. Development implies technologi-
cal and organisational improvement and social change through
the propagation of information and ideas. The role of communi-
cations is vital, and TV is only one of the mass media which is
itself only part of total national “communication’s web” in the
transmi.ssion of information and ideas. The central task before
the country is to strenghthen and expand this “web” and to avoid
doing anything that restricts it or limits its elBcacy. So while
launching SITE, with all its existing potential, it would be fitting
and proper for the Government urgently to review its larger
communications policy. National assets and traditions, patiently
and proudly built up over a century and more, once devalued
would rob the country of the vary tools of development that are
rightly being augmented and fashioned in yet another mould
through SITE.
4. THE MISSING SOUL OF EDUCATION
With the dawn of independence every body was sure that
educational system would undergo drastic changes and it would
be a powerful tool to contribute effectively to the achievement of
the goals of national development, self sufficiency, ]iquidation _
— ♦ Reproduced with kind permission of the author Professor Devendra
Rqhinwal.. Deptt. of Teacher Education. DAY College Dehra Dun.
A Panoroma of Decade 209
of illiteracy and social, emotional and national integration. The
nurturing of talents at all levels will lead to the equalization of
opportunities and will strong then the forces of egaliterian society
to minimise the exploitation of the weak and will channelise the
energies of the youth and the masses in a constructive way for
the establishment of secular democracy and socialistic pattern of
society which will be coping with the modern scientific and
technological advancements without the sacrifice of the sprit and
our rich cultural heritage of which every Indian should be proud
for obvious reasons. Even Kothri Commission remarks : —
“To evolve a system of education which should promote
national consciousness through the promotion of understanding
and re-evaluation of our cultural heritage”.
Sooner we do away with the imperialistic and the colonial
system of education better it would be for us. The charter of
demands submitted by Sliri Jai Prakash Narain on March 6,
1975 also asserts that education must be the instrument of social
change and should lead to modernization instead of westerni-
zation. The achievement of universal primary and adult edu-
cation and linking it with employment should promote our system
of education.
We have been blaming the Britishers for not giving us
National System of Education. On the other hand they used it
as a powerful tool to create a class of people who could be
relied upon to strengthen the British Raj in India. The cost which
we paid for such a system was a sharp break with the past, gulf
between the masses and elite, the curbing of creativity and ori-
ginality in us, and wastage and stagnation at every level and mass
illiteracy. Even after 32 years of freedom we are still following
the legacy of the crown and infact Ceaser The dead of British
Empire is more powerful than the Ceaser— the alive of British
Empire.” The educational institutions with a foreign medium
are the symbols of social prestige and linked with bread and
butter This great divide between the elite and the masses should
be removed without any delay if we want that education should
be free from perfidy, hypocricy, narrow mmdedness, selfish mani-
pulation, out-dated beureaucray and the worst type of commer-
cialization. For this, we will have to change our outlook and
think straight forward that minority is of the rich and the pri-
veleged and majority is of the poor and the underdogs. The high
210 Kothari Commission
values altacliccl lo tlic education through whole span of life and
the deep respect for learning arc deep rooted in the culture of
India and has been considered inevitable for the enrichment of
personality and quality of life throughout the ages. Now in the
context of the changing times we will have to make ourselves free
from extra-territorial loyality, may be under the garb of any
spiritual afinity, and “ism'’, any idealogical base, progressive
‘ism’, Psudo-Secularism and certain misguided and misinter-
preted slogans.
We should develop proper non-cornmuna! attitude by the
subordination of all narrower loyatities to the supreme loyality
to the nation.
We should cultivate the basic values of humanism democracy,
socialism, the love of motherland, the love for the dignity of
labour, the positive attitude and the development of our
national language as unifying factor with a sense of pride that we
have not been only the pioneers but have also contributed a lot
in the realms of literature, philosophy, art, culture, science and
technology.
But the primary and the most important factor is to be kept
in mind that the soul of education is a teacher and the progress of
the nation depends on the economic and social uplift and the
quality of teachers.
Let us quote a shalok from Katho-Upanished
?rr^r ;
(Wonderful becomes the seeker of the knowledge when taught
by a competent teacher)
5. EDUCATIONAL REFORM-
The Tarkunde Committee’s effort, undertaken on the request
of Mr. Jayaprakash Narayan, to present a policy frame for
educational reform to make education not only relevent to India’s
society today but also available to those socially and economically
at a disadvantage, is more than ordinarily welcome in the decades
since the British left, education, which at the best of times during
their rule was direly wanting in depth and seriousness, has deterio-
rated practically unchecked. There has been a great deal of talk
about making education appropriate for the various levels of
♦ Hindustan Times— Editorial
A Panoroma of Decade 21 1
requirement in this country ; and there has in recent years been
much good breath wasted on juggling with ten-plus-two or eight-
plus-four and the rest of it. But there does not any longer obtain
a system of education to speak of. To crown every-thing, there
is talk now and then — on an ad-hoc basis, of course — of such
measures as doing away with English and substituting it vvith
regional languages j or making it non-compulsory for government
jobs ; or practially removing it from UPSC tests ; and so on. In the
bargain, the so-called university graduate in this country is
“educated” only on the cerjificate he may have to show. As for
research or higher education what passes for these is of course
mostly unacceptable outside the country. The wonder is that in
the conditions that prevail there should continue to come up now
and then people who really are educated ! This speaks for those
who come up, and certainly not for the government and its
non-system.
In the midst of all this, to have had the courage to make
sensible recommendations such as have been made by the
Tarkunde Committee and by Dr. Nalk of the Indian Institute of
Education, knowing that the chances of their being put into
ractice are by no means bright, bespeaks either sheer optimism
r the kind of gumption that does eventually succeed in making a
acial dent. The attempt at creating a “national system of
ducation”, as summed up by Mr. Jayaprakash Narayan in his
)reword, would include pursuit of simultaneous and complemen-
iry programmes of social and educational reform ; involvement
f the entire community in the educational process, where the
uphasis would have shifted from teaching to learning, coopera-
on and co-ordination between educational and socio-political
'orkers ; emphasis on the pursuit of excellence as a way of life ;
nd the primacy of work in the scale of social values. Very
msibly, while the policy suggested would have increased access
f poor people to secondary and higher education through
xtension of facilities such as freeships and scholarship, it would
lake post- elementary education not a matter of right. The sense
1 this would seem to lie in the consequent selection of only the
litable for higher education, making eventually for seriousness
ad quality at the university level — apart from stemming the
otsam-jetsam flood of admission-seekers every year. But while
I this is welcome, and while there must be general agreement
212 Kothari Commission
with tlic committee that a “system” certainly needs over-hauling
in whicli 35 million teachers in some 700,000 institutions at an
annual cost of Rs. 25,000 million make education a mockery for
about 100 million students, it is difficult to agree with its pre-
ference for abolition of public and other independent schools.
Not immediately in any case. In expectation of good things to
come, it may not be prudent to jettison what we have.
23
Education in Sixth Plan
Since the dawn of independence, education in India faced a
lot of ups and downs. Every five year plan provided a bunch of
programme along with some allocation of the budget. Every year,
our population has been increasing and there is a dirth of educa-
tional facilities. We could not even achieve the target of free and
compulsory education upto the age group of 6-14 years.
The year 1977 was a landmark in the history of the country.
For the first time Janta Government took charge' from Congress
Party. Then, sixth Plan was prepared under her policies. Many
new phases have been introduced. Here we are presenting the
text of Educational provisions provided in the the plan. ^
“The educational system has recorded, over the years, a pheno-
menal growth. At the beginning of the Fifth Five Year plan, the
total number of schools and colleges had increased to 572 lakhs
2*31 lakhs in 1950-51 ; the corresponding increase in enrolment
was from 273 lakhs to 876 lakhs. The total government expendi-
ture on education in 1973-74 was Rs. 1311 crores or more
than eighteen times as compared to 1950-51. In terms of pro-
portion of children of the age-group 6— H, for whom edu-
cational facilities were available the progress achieved is indica-
ted below ■;
Classes/ Age-groups
Enrolment (in lakhs)
Percentage of the
Population in the
age-group
1950-51
1973-74
1950-51
1973-74
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4l
(5)
I— V/6— 1 1
VI— viir/ii ~M .
I— vni/6— 14 .
192
31
223
641
153
794
43
13
32
84
36
67
Reprinted with Courtsey of the Central Govt, of India.
214 Kothari Commissiou
Notwiihstanding the educational investments made, we have yet
to achieve the goal of universalisation of elementary education and
complete eradication of illiteracy.
The Policy Frame
The proposal for the development of education during the
Plan have been based on six major changes of policy :
(i) The programmes of adult education, including the eradi-
cation of adult illiteracy, have been neglected in the
post-independence period and have generally received less
then one per cent of the total education expenditure. In
view of their significance, it is now proposed to accord
them high priority- An attempt will be made to develop
a nation-wide and large-scale programme of adult edu-
cation with special emphasis on illiterates in the age-
group 15 — 35, and as much as 10 per cent of the total
educational outlay in the Plan will be earmarked for this
programme.
(ii; A far greater priority will be given to the programme of
universalizing elementary education in the age-group 6-14
which will be assigned about half the total allocation for
education in the Plan period. Several major reforms
will be introduced with the object of increasing the use-
fulness of the of the earlier programmes which had large
dropout rates and were known for their ineffectiveness
and inefficiency. There will be special emphasis on the
enrolment of girls and the children of weaker sections of
the community such as scheduled castes, scheduled tribes
and landless agricultural labourers.
(iii) So far, quantitative expansion of secondary and higher
education has received a greater priority and a larger allo-
cation of funds. It is proposed to regulate enrolments
in the general academic streams of higher secondary and
higher education, to keep down the expansion of facilities
at these stages to the minimum, and to shift the emphasis
to vocationalization at the secondary stage and to the
improvement of quality in secondary stage and higher
education.
(iv) The non-plan government expenditure on education has
now become very large. It has registered an annual
Education in Sixth Plan 215
growth rate of 12 per cent during the last ten years and
it is estimated to be of the order of Rs. 2245 crores in
1978-79. It is proposed to have an integrated look at
Plan and non-Plan provisions and devise concrete
measures for a better and more effective utilisation of this
invesiment for meeting development goals.
(v) The implementation of educational programmes has been
far from optimal in the past. Concrete and vigorous
steps will, therefore, be taken to improve the quality of
implementation, especially in States where universali-
sation of elementary education has made less headway
and the prevalence of illiteracy among adults is large.
(vi) Measures are also proposed to ensure a rural bias in the
educational programmes, to develop science education
and a scientific attitude and to provide a system of non-
formal education and training at all stages.
Elementary Education
The additional enrolment in elementary education during the
four years of the Fifth Plan was 106 lakhs (72 lakhs in classes I-V
and 34 lakhs in classes VI-VIII) and the levels of enrolment
reached were 85 per cent in the age group 6— 11, 40 per cent in
the age-group 6—14.
It is now proposed to accelerate the pace of expansion consi-
derably and to fulfil the directive of Article 45 of the Constitution
in about ten years. From this point of view, the following new
strategy is proposed to be adopted .
(i) The emphasis so far has been on mere ‘enrolment’ in
classes I— V and VI— VIII. This has concealed inflated enrol-
ments and large drop-out rates of about 60 per cent between classes
I V and 75 per cent between classes I— Vlll. It is, therefore,
proposed to lay down ‘average attendence’ in addition to ‘enrol-
ment’ as a more legitimate basis for the assesment of progress or
provision of teachers and to prescribe specific targets for annual
Lrolments in class I, class V and class VIII. Special efforts would
also be made for reduction of wastage and for monitoring of pro-
grammes for that purpose.
(ii) All urban areas have facilities for elementary education.
In rural araas SO per cent oflrabi.a.ions baving 93 P-
total rural population have a Primary school rv.th.n i c l.lomelres
216 Kolhari Commission
and over 60 per cent of habitations having 72 per cent of the total
rural population have a middle school within 3 kilometres.
Careful plans will be prepared for location of new primary and
middle schools and all the institutions required will be opened on
a priority basis during the Plan period.
(iii) The only strategy adopted so far to universalize elemen-
tary education is to enrol additional children in class I (all these
arc expected to attend on a full-time basis) at the beginning of
each school year. This strategy will be continued and expanded.
Every primary school will be expected to prepare census of all
children in the age-group 6-7 and enrol as many of them as
possible in the beginning of each school year through specially
organized enrolment drives. It is thus hoped that by the end of the
plan period, non-enrolment of young children in class I will
almost be eliminated.
(iv) The present system of single-point entry and exclusively
full-time education has two serious weaknesses; it gives no opportu-
nity to grown-up children to join school if they desire to do so,
and It leads to large rates of drop-out because grown up children
who have to work are left with no option but to discontinue edu-
cation. It is, therefore, proposed to introduce two major
reforms : —
(a) A multiple-entry system will be adopted and special con-
densed courses of non-formal education will be organised for
grown-up children in the age-group 9^ — 14 who have never been
to school or dropped out so early as to become illiterate again.
Special emphasis will be laid on programmes for children in the
age-group 1 1 — 14. It has been the experience that these children
can be taken to the level of class V in 12—24 months.
(b) A system of part-time, non-formal continuation educa-
tion will be designed for children who enter the primary school
but drop-out iater, generally in the age-group 9 — 1 ^. The rule
will be that every child in the age-group 6 — 14 shall attend school,
on a full-time basis, if necessary for those who cannot, mainly for
economic reasons, attend full-time education. This will reduce
drop-outs and wastage very greatly.
It is expected that, as a result of the programmes mentioned
above the enrolments in elementary education during the Plan will
jnerease by 320 lakhs (220 lakhs in classes I— V and 100 lakhs in
Education in Sixth Plan 217
classes VI VIII). A very large proportion of these would be in
part time non-formal education. The enrolment increase would
mean educational facilities for 110 per cent of the children in the
^gO'group 6 — 11, 57 percent of the children in the age-group
II — 14, and 90 per cent of the children in the age-group6 — 14
by 1982-83.
(v) The vast bulk of the non-attending children at present
consists of girls, children of scheduled casts and tribes and children
of other weaker sections like landless agricultural labourers,
efforts will be made to enrol them. These will include : appoint-
ment of more women teachers, free supply of text-books or even
clothing where necessary, provision of mid-day meals where nece-
ssary and possible under the revised minimum needs programme,
establishment of ashram schools especially for tribal children in
sparsely populated areas, intensive educational propaganda among
the people, setting up separate targets for the enrolment of girls and
children of scheduled castes and schedulde tribes and so on. The
imbalances of development between boys and girls and different
social strata will thus be greatly reduced.
(vi) An attempt will be made to reduce imbalances in
regional development. Every State will be requested to ensure
that special efforts are made to rapidly identify backward areas
and to promote expansion of elementry education therein.
(vii) Educational research related to problems of taking
education to section which have so far been by-passed is a neglected
area. Action-oriented educational research and experimental pro-
jects of intensive educational development as part of integrated
area development programmes will, therefore, be given special
encouragement and support.
(viii) The expansion visualized in the programme in unprece-
dented, whether considered in absolute figures or in terms of per-
centage increase. It has also to be in areas and for population
groups which constitute the hard core of the poor and the back-
ward in the country. It will, therefore, need great organizational
effort and administrative support. The campaigns of adult educa-
tion that are being simultaneously organized will be help in this
task. Attempts will also be made to organize a mass movement
of parental education to support this programme. The elementary
school teachers will have to play a vital role and their services may
be utilised not only for teaching the children who come to school
2.'S Kothari Commission
out als' to brine r.on-attencir.g children to srhoc] and to sc-e that
they CO not drop out. ~ae supenusing machinery nvni he ade-
quately strengthened and the help of other goverrmnent depart-
ments '.vjji be enlisted.
Program.mes of qualitative improvement in elementary* edu-
cation help the programmes of e.upansion by enhancing the attra-
cting and holding pO'.ver of sehoois. It is, therefore, proposed
to emphasize and to aliocate adequate funds for several pro-
grammes of quaiitative imox-ovement such as introduction oi
socially useful productive vorlu curricular referm so as to hui
euucation to tne environment and to maite it relevant and inter-
esting to children, relating school vacations to climatic and
aaricultural conuitioiis, orovision or equiument and pro*»~iiion. or
cheap but enectively useful buildings constructec. as far as pos-
sible, out of local materials by local comm'uniries, improvement
in the caalitv of school boois, a-doorion of dvnamic methods, ol
creation of a scieniinc awareness and inculcating a scieutmc
attitude, better pre-serrice and in-serrice education of teachers
and improvement of supervision.
Clearly, so large and unprecendented an eSorr vill need a
much greater investment than in any earlier Plan. This demand
is proposed to be met through three-pronged drive of economy in
unit costs, more elective urilizstion of exising resources, and
increased ailocaiion.
(aj Uni: costs in elementary education will be considerably
reducen oecause of the adoption of the programmes of part-time
2j'i d iion'iOra-a.2ui sciiic^iion.
ro’dia alio ce recuccG tiirouEi
the acopuon of ihe double-sysiein. at leas: for classes I and II.
Co) There is an ineSeciive use of availabie resources ar present
r}“Cattse or overlapoina and duplication mvojven m cao location or
elementary scncols and irrational icstina or teacners. mere is
evidence to shov that in many areas existing facihries are grossly
under ntilizeG.. A. sustaineo and intensive enort is neecen *o correct
these deficiencies. This will mahe it possib^ to increase the
enrolments vrithout proportionate additional sian.
(c) The allocations to elementary enucaticn also need to ce
substantially inc.veased. In the Plan it is propost-i to allocate
PvS. 9C*3 crores. or neary 50 per cent of the total allocatlor., to
1
Education in Sixth Plan 219
elementary education (which is roughly about three times that
during 1974 — 78).
Adult Education
The existing programmes of adult education viz., (1) the
farmers’ functional literacy project for rural areas, (2) the Shramik
Vidyapeeths and polyvalent adult education centres for urban
areas, (3) adult education departments in universities, (4) the
Nehru Yuvak Kendras, (5) National Service Scheme, and
(6) assistance to voluntary organisations for adult education will
be continued, improved and expanded where necessary. But the
main feature of the Plan is the proposal to mobilise all these
efforts and organize a very large, intensive and nation-wide pro-
gramme of adult education, with special emphasis on the age-
group 15 — 35. Whereas in the past the total number of adults
made literate every year was about 5 lakhs, it is now proposed
that programmes of adult education and literacy in the Plan will
cover about 650 lakhs in total, 15 lakhs in the first year, 45 lakhs
in the second, 90 lakhs in the third, 180 lakhs in the fourth and
320 lakhs in the fifth and final year.
It is obvious that an immense organizational and finan-
cial effort is needed to implement such a colossal programme.
Some of the salient aspects of this effort have been indicated
below : —
(i) The main target group of the programme is the illiterate
and unorganized people in rural and urban areas who are most
exploited and weak and generally live below the poverty me. ven
among these, special emphasis will be laid on those v\ o are in
the age-group 15-35. Women among whom illitercy rate is very
high, scheduled castes and tribes, landless ai^jcu tura a
and other weaker sections of the community will naturally
special attention. ■ u-
(ii) While literacy has a special place of its own
programme, meant essentially for the poor !
principal objective is to increase the awarenes ^
about themselves and about the socia rea i y >
organize them to assist them to m
different problems in their day to d y rntl-m''] de' elc--
meaningful and challenging laab of so™' .1;
raent. Besides liieraey. the main ft'' l';"
therefore, include an appropriate ‘m«’ smted to tne n.e..
220 Kothari Commission
interests of tiic individual, of such themes as general education
including citizenship training, health education and family plann-
ing upgrading of vocational skills, deeper understanding of science
and technology in day-to-day life and physical education and
cultural activities.
(iii) The success of the programme will depend upon stimulat-
ing the motivation of adults, proper selection and training
of workers, preparation of good learning materials, adoption
of dynamic methods of learning through doing and living, organi-
sation of a mass movement, and provision of adequate supervision
and guidance. These aspects will, therefore, be given adequate
attention in the Plan.
(iv) In developing the programme, full utilization will be
made of voluntary agencies, young persons, interested in social
service, institutions and organisations engaged in economic or
other activities but interested in adult education, workers’ organi-
zations, retired teachers or other personnel and in fact, of the
immense and valuable educational resources outside the formal
system of education which can be advantageously harnessed to
programmes of adult education. The workers within the formal
system of education— teachers and students — will be utilized on
selective basis. Wherever possible, programmes of adult educi
tion will be linked to those of development.
(v) Such a programme can only be organized on a high
decentralized basis. A National Board of Adult Education hs
been established at the Centre to guide the programme. Suitab
agencies will also be set up with similar objectives at the Stats
district, block and local community levels.
The first year of the programme will be mainly preparator)
Some of the measures are : programme-planning in consultatio
with all agencies as envisaged and extended to district/block leve
identification and mobilisation of voluntary young workers, ex-sei
vicemen and other agencies at the field level, creation of a suitabl
environment including pre-conditions for initial motivation an^
sustained participation of adult learners, establishment of resource
centres in all regions, preparation of curriculum and teachin;
learning materials on the basis of identified needs of learnen
development of methods and materials for training, as well a
training of instructional personnel at the district and project levels
The basic sub-structure of the needed machinery for this naliona
campaign will also be created during this period.
Educational in Sixth Plan 221
An important aspect of the the programme being developed
is that it will go far beyond the traditional boundaries of the
Education Department. In fact, this programme will have to be
regarded as a collaborative effort in which all Central and State
agencies, industry, employers, organisations of workers, etc. will
have to play an important role. Another equally important aspect
is that area-specific and group-specific plans closely linked to
development, will be carefully prepared for implementation, with
adequate provision for the administrative, supporting and super-
vising machinery.
The total allocation proposed for the programme is Rs. 200
crores or 10 per cent of the total educational plan outlay as
against Rs. 18 crores or about 1 per cent of the educational finan-
cial outlay in the Fifth Plan. It needs to be pointed out, however,
that this is only one source of funds for the programmes of adult
education in the Plan in which multiple agencies are expected to
participate and which will, therefore, be funded from multiple
sources. For instance, the different empoyer-groups and project
authorities might fully finance their adult education activities. The
needs of tribal areas and groups may be met from outlays of tribal
sub-plans The Plan outlay for rural development and agriculture
could like-wise include provisions for the farmers’ literacy projects.
The outlay shown under education may therefore, be only a part
of the total provision available for adult education during the next
five years This will be stepped up if necessary on the basis of
the experience gained in the year to year implementation of the
programmes.
Secondary Education
The development of secondary education has generally been in
he form of an expansion of facilties. Even this has generally
and acadeo..-ca„.
Lwe The main thrust of the programmes mduded ,n the P an.
™“toey!s to emphasise qualitati.e improvement, vocat.onahza-
ion and to restrain expansion.
.ion duu npw <;econdarv schoo s may be
While establishment of some
inevitable especially opening of many new
Sa.y:chods°“m emphasis tvould be on the rationalisat.on
222 Kotliari Commission
and consolidation of existing schools. The attempt to introduce
the uniform pattern of school and college classes will be continued
and the several problems thrown up in its implementation will be
continued and the several problems thrown up in its implemen-
tation will be carefully sorted out.
It is anticipated that the additional enrolment in secondary
education during the Plan may be about 30 lakhs, which is almost
equal to the expansion envisaged in the Fifth Plan, 1974 — 79.
Most of this demand should be met, not by establishing new
schools, but by better and more efficient utilization of the existing
secondary schools. In addition, programmes of non-formal edu-
cation, such as correspondence courses will be fully encouraged.
Emphasis will be placed on quality improvement. There are
several programmes which, while not requiring large finances never-
theless would help lay foundation for sustained improvement. Pro-
grammes proposed to be developed for this purpose will include,
introduction of socially useful productive work, better teaching of
languages (as means of communication), mathematics and science
(will the provision of low cost laboratories), involvement of stu-
dents in social service, including literacy v/ork and adult education,
faculty improvement including improved training of teachers, and
creating an ethos of work and dedication in the system.
An equal if not greater emphasis will have to be placed
on vocationalization with the object of making secondary edu-
cation employment-oriented and directly useful for the students.
Detailed guidelines for this purpose are being drawn up by a work-
ing group set up by the Ministry of Education. Vocational courses
to be provided at various levels will be of a more substantial order
than in the Fifth Plan but still be experimental in nature and
would be dovetailed with the programmes of rural development.
It is necessary that existing training facilities, which have
already been created in the Industrial Training Institutes, Poly-
technics, Agricultural Polytechnics, para-medical schools and other
vocational training institutions are fully utilised and diversified
before new training programmes are established. The requirments
of new training programmes need to be identified on the basis of
of intensive surveys of specific localities. Considering that the
organised sector may not provide sufficient avenues of employment
for all the products of vocational courses, it will be necessary to
identify avenues of self-employment for which skill training can
Education in Sixth Plan
223
be organized for secondary school students. This vdll be parti-
cularly necessary in rural areas where the new investments sdsuaii-
zed might open avenues for gainful employment.
The present system of public (and similar) schools run by
private bodies and charging high fees which restrict them to the
children of afriuent sections is inconsistent with an egalitarian
society. There is need for government to take steps to enable the
poor talented children to join such schools and also to persuade
existing institutions of this kind to admit and provide freeships to
substantial number of students from among the talented but econo-
mically handicapped.
The total allocation for secondary education in the Plan li
Rs. 300 crores. This prorision needs to be supplemented cy
additional resources from other sources. For instance, the prac-
tice of charging development fees, adopted by some StaLCJ lOr^
the provision and strengthening of work e.tperienve, te^-uncg Oj
science, provision of school buildings and teacning ecui.-rue.-i,
should become universal. Support from local contiiiumu.i i-
cash and kind will also be encouraged on a vdder scale (.ni..
being done at present. In the same way, the
over complete financial liability of privatels-manigeu
needs to be reversed and the trend towardi the ^
of fees at the secondary stage needs to be halieu.
provision can be made for scholarship^ and
view to safeguarding the edcational interesii Or
ged sections and meritorious students v-itnOt-L ,
secondary' schools need to be charged ct re.t—
reasonable relationship vrith the cost Oi piO.u’dm- e can
General Higher Education
There has been an unplanned and rapid exp^ns.3^-
higher education in the first fonr ^plaus. ^ m c
rate of growth of general higher
partly as a result of a deliceraie pou-,-
partly due to the adoption ot tne
education. This is a svelcome de.c»op_- <■
consolidated in the new Plan.
No universities are prowceu ■■,[± great
colleges are to be set up, in — - c'
restraint, only afier ensuring :c
teachers, finances and mateiiiir:- -~t--
224 Kothari Commission
rationalize existing institutions with a view to encouraging diffe-
rent colleges to concentrate programmes in a few subjects or
subject combinations in which they could have academically viable
teaching units, there will be rigorous control over the starting of
additional courses in existing institutions.
The policy regarding fees which has been suggested above
for secondary education is even more relevant and necessary for
higher education. This will act as a further curb on expansion;
Two precautions are, however, needed in the rigorous pursuit of
this policy : (a) care should be taken to see that the access of the
community to higher education, which is probably their almost
exclusive channel to vertical mobility, is increased, rather than
decreased, and (b) non-formal programmes of higher education
should be encouraged sothat the opportunity of higher education
is available to all, who are qualified for it and are ready to receive
it without being a drain on the public exchequer. All universities
will be persuaded to open their examinations to private candidates
and encourage self-study.
The main emphasis in the Plan will, therefore, be on qualita-
tive improvement. A broad policy frame for this has recently
been prepared by the University Grants Commission which will
be assisted to implement it. The major programmes included in
the Plan are ;
(i) Access to higher education will be linked to talent and
aptitude, admission to full-time institutions of higher learning at
the first degree and post-graduate levels will be selective, based
on merit but with reservation of an adequate number of seats for
the weaker sections.
(ii) The under-graduate and post-graduate courses will be
restructured to make them more meaningful and relevant to the
society alike. There will be extensive diversification of courses
and modernization of physical facilities as well as of the edu-
cational methodologies. More stress will be laid on science edu-
cation and on interdisciplinary activities. Courses of study,
research and extension services which have bearing upon rural
development, adult education and other priority programmes will
be given special attention.
(iii) The Indian languages will be adopted as media of ins-
tructions of the under-graduate stage. The production of books
in Indian languages will be expedited. Side by side, steps will be
Education in Sixth Plan 225
taken to provide facilities for students to acquire a good working
knowlegde of English and other foreign languages so that they
have direct access to the growing knowledge in the world.
(iv) There has to be considerable decentralization of authority
from the university to the departments and to the affiliated
colleges. The programme , of autonomous colleges will be
vigorously pursued.
(v) The UGC assistance to colleges will be increasingly devo-
ted to the improvement of academic standards in colleges on a
selective basis. The grants-in-aid from State Governments to
affiliated colleges need to be rationalised and effectively used as
instruments for qualitative improvement.
(vi) Extension programmes will form an integral part of
higher education along with teaching and research. These will
cover not only the improvement of other sub-sectors of education
but also, as outlined in the chapter on Science and Technology,
service to the local community.
(vii) Post-graduate courses and research will be concentrated
largely in university departments, their location, scope and areas
of stress would be so planned that fewer centres of better quality
are set up in different subjects rather than proliferating centres in
the same subject field within the States.
(viii) Faculty improvement will continue to receive emphasis
and attention.
(ix) Research, both fundamental and applied, will continue
to be promoted. Programmes of support for research, both basic
and applied, by individual*:, groups and departments will be
strengthened, so as to help the emergence and growth of strong
schools of research in the university system.
The provision in the Plan, 1978 — 83, for general higher
education is Rs. 265 crores. The reduction in the proportion of
funds allocated to this sub-sector reflects the much higher priority
attached to adult and. elementary education. It is, therefore,
essential to exercise the greatest restraint on expansion, make
efforts to raise internal resources through a discriminate use of
fees including a differential structure and review all existing
programmes.
Technical Education
The overall situation here is different. Technical education,
226 Kothari Commission
for instance, lias grown mainly in relation to assessed future
demand for manpower and has been largely responsible for the
development of the modern industrial scetor. But owing to
increased output and a slack in the industry, the economy was
not able to absorb all the products of the system which has an
inbuilt capacity of annual intake of 25,000 students for degree
courses and 50,000 students for diploma courses in different
branches of engineering and technology. According to the present
available estimates of additional requirements of engineering
manpower for the next ten years, the existing facilities are consi-
dered adequate, no provision is, therefore, included for the setting
up of any new engineering colleges or polytechnics or for
expansion of facilities beyond the capacity already approved.
Changes in manpower demand in different specialities will be met
by appropriate shifts in discipline-wise intake within the overall
of the system.
It is necessary to review the assessment made of the long-
term requirements of engineering manpower, from time to time,
state-wise and speciality-wise, and, taking into account the lead
time involved, to specify the educational efforts currently needed
in that context. In order to undertake such an assessment as part
of the annual review of technical education perspectives, it is
proposed to set up a technical manpower information system.
The emphasis in the Plan will thus be on consolidation and
qualitative improvement. The Plan provides for a phased
programme of removal obsolescence and modernisation of
facilities on the basis of redesign of laboratory and workshop
practice and of modernization and diversification of courses with
greater flexibility especially with reference to the needs of rural
development, reduction of wastage, and integration of curriculum
development with laboratory work-planning. ■
Provision has been made in the Plan for completing the
on-going programmes of consolidation and improvement of
facilities in existing institutions according to approved schemes.
The five centres of advanced study and research in energy studies,
material sciences, cryogenics, ocean engineering and resources
survey would be fully established. Their future activities would
mainly be to undertake research in identified fields in accordance
with the National Plan of Science and Technology, specific
projects as well as financial support for such research would have
Education in Sixth Plan 227
to be made available by sponsoring agencies in the Government
departments and public sector/private industry. The programme
of post-graduate courses and research in engineering and techno-
logy will be stabilised at the current level, more emphasis will be
given to sponsored research work to be assigned and funded by
the user agencies, to technical extension services by the faculty
and students and to faculty development programmes.
The technical education system represents a national resource
of science and technology with specialised laboratories, sophisti-
cated instrumentation facilities and, more importantly, teams of
highly qualified scientific and engineering personnel on their
faculty. These internal resources should be utilised not merely
towards technological self-reliance but also to bring about pro-
gressive improvement in the quality of technical education. In
this context, it should be examined whether a system of domestic
technical assistance programme could not be formulated by
pooling resources and facilities of selected institutions for the
benefit of the developing ones.
Other Programmes and Art and Culture
, The Plan provides for the continuation of the on-going
programmes in the fields of physical education, games and sports,
language development, scholarships and art and culture. Keeping
in view the resources constraint and the priorities for the massive
programmes of elementary education and adult education, it may
not be possible to include any new programmes or allow subs-
tantial expansion of the existing*, ones. In the field of culture,
special attention will have to be given to schemes relating to the
preservation and conservation of our cultural heritage, parti-
cularly monuments, repositories of manuscripts and art objects.
The awareness of the cultural heritage will be developed among
the students through curricular and co-curricular programmes.
Implementation
The distribution of the total financial outlay of Rs. 1955
crores in the different sub-sectors is given to many items. This
is exclusive of the non-plan provision which, as stated earlier, is
likely to be Rs. 2245 crores in 1978-79.
The major programmes included in the Plan are largely
different from those included in the earlier plans and will need,
more importantly than financial outlays, special efforts fcr their
228 Kothari Commission
implementation. Tlicir main aspect is that they emphasize
essential human inputs without wJiich it will not be possible to
to transform the educational system and which have generally
been under-played in the past. On the academic side, these will
include an emphasis on improving the ethos of the system' through
the combined efforts of teachers, students, administrators and
government, adoption of a policy of decentralization and diversi-
fication, encouragement of innovations and experimentation
through devolution of autonomy, emphasis on the development
of non formal programmes of education at all stages, restructuring
and revision of courses at all stages to make them significant and
relevant and adoption of improved methods of teaching and
evaluation (including the introduction of work experience and
social service programmes, better teaching of science, languages
and mathematics and the use of Indian languages as media of
instruction at the under graduate stage). On the managerial and
administrative side, it will include an intensive effort to work with
all the different departments of government, harnessing the
services of industry, organisation of employers and workers and
voluntary organisations, close involvement of the people and
raising community support and resources. The educational
agencies will have to function differently to meet the challenges of
the new programmes and educational institutions will have to be
assisted and encouraged to function in close contact with the
community and in mutually supporting groups rather than in
atomized isolation from one another and from the community.
The programmes of adult and universal elementary education will
also include the organization of a mass movement to promote
proper attitudes to strengthen voluntary effort and to create and
sustain motivation. On the financial side, the earlier emphasis
on the best and the most economical use of plan funds will
continue. But special efforts will be needed to make a more
effective use of non-plan resources and to reduce unit costs.
Special administrative and promotive efforts will be needed in the
less advanced States to help them to meet their challenges and
problems and these will receive emphasis, attention and support.
The Plan emphasises the need for equalisation of educational
opportunities at all levels especially for the children of the weaker
sections of the society, it provides for universalisation of elemen-
tary education, greater access of these students to higher
Education in Sixth Plan 22^
education, etc. In this context, the aim will be to see that these
children are helped to avail themselves fully of the educational
facilities earmarked for them in the different institutions, through
measures like special remedial coaching/courses and personalised
guidance services.
The successful implementation of these programmes also
requires that the hard decisions now taken about high priorities
to elementary and adult education, control of expansion in
secondary and higher education, non-increase in the hidden
subsidies to to-well-to-do and urban sections, if not an actual
reduction therein, and for optimum redeployment of non-plan
provisions is support of development goals will continue to be
adhered to throughout the plan period.
24
National Adult Education^
Programme
2nd of October 1978 was the redletter day in the history of
education. On this day a nation wide programme of Adult Edu-
cation was launched on a war basis. Ministry of Edueation and
Social Welfare published a booklet regarding the policy of Adult
Education and its programme. We are reproducing the same for
the readers and teachers educators.
Exclusion of a vast majority of the people from the process
of education is a most disturbing aspect of educational and social
planning. This has been uppermost in the consideration of the
present Government ever since it assumed office in March, 1977.
While determined efforts must be made to universalies elementary
education upto the age of 14 year, educational facilities must be
extended to adult population to remedy their educational deprivi-
ation and to enable them to develop their potentiality. Indeed,
universalisation of elementary education and of adult literacy are
mutually inter-dependent.
2. The Government have resolved to wage a clearly-con-
ceived, well-planned and relentless struggle against illiteracy to
enable the masses to play an active role in social and cultural
change. Literacy ought to be recognised as an integral part
of an individual’s personaliiy. The present thinking on adult
education is bassed on the assumptions ; (a) that illiteracy is a
serious impediment to an individual's growth and to country’s
socio-economic progress; (b) that education, is not coterminus
with schooling but takes place in most work and the life situations;
(c) that learning, working and living are inseparable and each
acquires a meaning only when correlated with others; (d) that
1 National Adult Education Programme. An Outline-Ministry of Edu-
cation and Social Welfare. Govt, of India New Delhi 1978. The author is
grateful to the Govt, of India to reproduce the same for the benefit of readers.
National Adult Education Programme 23\
the means by which people are involved in the process of develop-
ment are at least as important as the ends; and (e) that the
illiterate and the poor can rise to their own liberation through
literacy, dialogue and action.
3. Adult Education should emphasise imparting of literacy
skills to persons belonging to the economically and socially dep-
rived sections of society. Many amongst them have grown up in
a culturaly rich environment where learning has been through the
spoken word transmitted from generation to generation. The
adult education programmes must respond to their cultural and
intellectual level and build upon the innate artistic perceptions
and skill in crafts. However, motivation for sustained partici-
pation in literacy and follow-up programmes is an issue which
needs to be faced. In this context, stress should be laid on
learning rather than teaching, on use of the spoken language in
literacy programmes, on harnessing the mass-media and the cul-
tural environment. Motivation also depends on an awareness
among the participants that they can transform their destinies
and that the adult education programmes will lead to advancement
of their functional capability for the realisation of this objective.
Moreover, a literacy programme unrelated to the working and
living conditions of the learners, to the challenges of the environ-
ment and the developmental needs of the country cannot secure
an active participation of the learners; nor can it be an instru-
ment of development and progress. Adult Education, therefore,
while emphasising acquisition of literacy skills should also be ;-
relevant to the environment and learners’ needs ;
Flexible regarding duration, time, location, instruc-
tional arrangements etc. ;
diversified in regard to curriculum, teaching and
learning meterials and methods; and
_ systematic in all aspects or organisation.
4 Highest priority in adult education needs to be given to
the illiterate persons. In the post-independence penod the achie-
L In field of literacy have been far from satisfactory,
ins he te onttele'ey was I per cent which rose to 34.45
per cent (excluding age-group 0-4) in 1971 Yet owing to
population increase and half-heartedness
number of illiterate persons has risen from 247 million in
232 Kothari Commission
lo 307 million in 1971. According to the Census of 1971 the
total number of illiterate persons above 14 years of age is
209'5 million of which 97' 1 million are in the age-group 15—35,
which is likely to be about 100 million at present. A massive
programme should be launched to cover this vast segment of
population in 15—35 age-group as far as possible within five years
of its launching. This implies organisation of special programmes
for women and for persons belonging to Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes. The regions which have a concentration of
illiteracy will also require special attention.
5. While the conceptual position slated in paragraphs 2 and
3 needs emphasis, the need to view the programme as a mass
movement must also be underlined. For the organisational point
of view it is of utmost importance that elaborate preparations are
made before launching this massive programme. Identification
and motivation of the instructoi's, preparation of curriculum and
teaching/learning materials and training have been the main areas
of deficiency in adult education programmes in the past. A satis-
factory level of preparedness in these areas must be reached be-
fore the programme is to be launched. Besides, adult education
must cease to be a concern only of the educational authority. It
should be an indispensable input in all sectors of development,
particularly where participation of the beneficiaries is crucial to
the fulfilment of development objectives. A pre-requisite of an
adult education movement is that all agencies. Governmental,
voluntary, private and public sector industry, institutions of for-
mal education etc. should lend strength to it. Voluntary agencies
have a special role to play and necessary steps shall have to be
taken to secure their full involvement. Instructional work shall
have to be done by the teachers, students and unemployed men
and women. It would be of great advantage if unemployed or
under-employed youth having the potentiality to organise adult
education programmes are provided necessary training and then
entrusted with the responsibility for organising such programmes.
To ensure effectiveness and systematic analysis of the problems,
the programmes should have built-in mechanisms for monitoring
and evaluation as well as for applied research.
6. All programmes of adult education and literacy must be
followed up by effective arrangements for continuing education—
which would include library services, group discussions and other
National Adult Education Programme 233
forms of organised learning, reactivation of group cultural activi-
ties and festivals, and community action.
7. Adequate financial and administrative support will be
essential for organisation of the massive programme. Provision
shall have to be made for a programme comprising literacy as
well as environmental and social education, extending to appro-
ximately 300-350 hours or about 9 months, and also taking into
account other costs. The required resources shall have to be
provided by the Government, local bodies, voluntary agencies,
trade and industry etc. A realistic assessment should be made
of the size and capability of the administrative and professional
apparatus which would be necessary for the programme and neces-
sary steps taken to create it.
8. In addition to organising a massive programme for adult
illiterates, it is necessary to provide special programmes for special
groups based on their special needs. For example, programmes
are needed for.
~ the rural youth to train them in the scientific methods
suited for small scale production, both in agriculture
and industry, and in rural leadership ;
— urban workers to improve their skills, to prepare
them for securing their rightful claims and for par-
ticipation in management ;
— Government functionaries such as office clerks, field
extension workers and police and arms forces per-
sonnel to upgrade their competence ,•
— employees of commercial establishments such as
banks and insurance companies to improve their per-
formance ;
— housewives to inculcate a better understanding
of family life problems and women’s status in
society.
Togramraes for these and several other categories of persons
ould be organised through class-room participation, corres-
)ondence cources or mass media, or by a combination of all
hese.
9. It is of the greatest importance that implementation of
idult education programmes is decentralised. It would also be
lecessary to establish agencies of coordination and catalisation.
234 Kothari Commission
A National Board of Adult Education has been established for
this purpose by the Central Government and similar Boards
should be established at tlic State levels. Suitable agencies should
also be created at the field level for coordination and for invol-
vement of the various agencies in the programme.
An Outline
This paper aims at delineation of operational details for giving
cfifcct to the Policy Statement on Adult Education. This is not
an attempt at laying down of rigid guidelines, but rather an ex-
ploration of alternatives, ft may be recapitulated that the ob-
jective is to organise adult education programmes, with literacy
as an indispensable component, for approximately 100 million
illiterate persons mainly in the age-group 15 — 35 with a view to
providing to them skills for self-directed learning leading to self-
reliant and active role in their own development and in the deve-
lopment of their environment. The conceptual position and
general strategy is spelt out in the Policy Statement on Adult
Education, which should be read as a part of this document.
Phasing of the Programme
NAEP was inaugurated on 2nd October, 1978. However,
for all practical purposes the period until the end of March, 1979
would be treated as the period of intensive preparation. Prepara-
tory action would include the following areas :
(1) Substantial stepping up of the programme from the
existing level of approximately 0.5 million to at least
1.5 million in 1978-79.
(2) Creation of an environment favourable to the laun-
ching of NAEP.
(3) Preparation of case studies of some' significant past
experience, particularly those where the failures or
successes have a bearing on the planning and imple-
mentation of NAEP.
(4) Detailed planning of the various segments of the pro-
gramme by appointment of expert groups — this
would include preparation of detailed plans for each
State and Union Territory.
(5) Establishment of necesary structures for administration
and Coordination and necessary modification of proce-
National Adult Education jProgramme HS
dures and patterns.
(6j Identification of various agencies, official and non-ofiicial,
to be involved in the programme and taking necessary
measures to facilitate the needed level of their involve-
ment.
(7) Undertaking of necessary exercises to clarify the required
competencies, particularly in literacy and numeracy,
which would form part of all field programmes.
(8) Development of capabilty in all State for preparation of
diversified and need-based teaching/learning materials as
well as making available teaching/learning materials for
starting the programme.
(9) Development of training methodologies, preparation of
training manuals as well as actual training of personnel
at various levels to launch the programme.
(10) Creation of a satisfactory system of evaluation and
monitoring as well as the required applied research base.
Preparatory action will, however, not conclude at the end of
1978-79, Action on almost all the items listed above would need
to be taken for at least a year even after launching ofNAEP.
Indeed, in a series preparatory action for the following year, based
on conclusion of the Programme.
The annual phasing of coverage will have to be worked out
on the basis of the level of achievement reached m a preceding
vear > The measure of preparation would include the probable
Lhievement of target. The success of the Programme will de-
Tn. the manner in which the beginning is made in the first
of vears and every effort shall be made to extend the
couple 0 y ^g^i^ately 100 million illiterate persons by
fh?endTf 1983-84. The present projections of targets are as
236 Kotliari Commission
II needs to be clarified that these arc cfTectivc targets and, even
if a very efficient programme is organised, there could be about
one-third wastage and the programme shall have to be organised
keeping this in view.
What is aimed is that by 1983-84 a capability to organise
adult education programmes for 35 million persons would be
built up. At that stage it would be necessary to diversify the
programmes — the aim then would be to strive fora learning
society in which life-long education is a cherished goal.
Creation of favourable environment
The results of the Experimental World Literacy Programme
as will as the experience of the countries where illiteracy eradic-
tion programmes have successfully been implemented show that
a systematic effort must be made for creation of an environment
favourable for launching of such a massive programme. No
country, however, perhaps with the exception of China, faced
the problem of illiteracy of the magnitude we are facing. And
hardly any country has had such a long tradition of respect for
learning and knowledge, or the vast resources which we have.
What is necessary, it is indeed a pre-requisite for motivation of
all persons to be involved in NAEP, is to engender a spirit of
hope and confidence. The Prime Minister and the Education
Minister have already declared that the highest prioi'ity needs
to be given to adult education. Leaders of all political parties
in Parliament have wholeheartedly endorsed the programme and
have given assurance of support. This, it is hoped, would be
followed up by leaders in various other walks of life such as
trade unions, trade and industry, students and youth. A critical
role can be played, in this context by the mass-media— films, TV,
radio, newspapers, publicity posters, etc. This would require
an ingenious and co-ordinated effort, in which official and non-
official media shall have to converge to serve the objectives of
the programme. In addition, a number of other methods could
be explored, including holding of seminars and symposia, cele-
bration of the World Literacy Day in schools and colleges, etc.
The various ways in which an environment can be created shall
have to be studied in detail and necessary measures taken an soon
as possible.
National Adult Education Programme 237
The Approach
The two most basic problems faced by our country arc
poverty and illiteracy. One obliges a vast mass of our citizens
to live under conditions of want and degradation, the other hinders
opening of the doors of development and affects the ability of the
poor to overcome their predicament. Indeed, the problem of
poverty and illiteracy are two aspects of the same stupendous
problem and the struggle to overcome one without at the same
time waging a fight against the other is certain to result in aber-
rations and disappointments. For this reasons, NAEP is visualised
as a means to being about a fundamental change in the process of
socio-economic development; from a situation in which the poor
remain passive spectators at the fringe of the development activity
to being enabled to be at its centre, and as active participants.
The learning process involves emphasis on literacy, but not that
only; it also stresses the importance of functional upgradation and
of raising the level of awareness regarding their predicament
among the poor and the illiterate.
Our country has a distinctive value system with a tradition
of learning— perpetuated through oral communication, fairs, fes-
tivals and informal skill training which dates back to the earliest
days of human civilization, enriched and harmonised over the
centuries by the contact of divere cultures and religions. The
distinctive feature of our cultural pattern is that production, art,
and education are integral to each other. This must be recognised
by the planners and organisers of all adult education programmes
and by the learners themselves and, the same time, they must
acquire a questioning faculty towards features which shelter
narrowness and blind belief.
Traditionally, distinction is made between the selective and
the mass approaches-distinction being based on the extent of
“verage'and quality of the programme, NAEP ,s a maaa pro-
gramme with the quality o! plaun.ng and tmplementatiou of a
fetetive programme. In faet, in relating the programme to he
TeeS of the learners, NAEP is even more audacious than the
eonventiona, Seed
vieS’ a" a mas; movement, to which all sections of people and
ofrhrJe“u™nt“Tssues in adult education planning is
238 Kothari Commission
motivation of tlic adult learners. Even when they can be sti-
mulated to participate in adult education programmes initially,
their interest is not sustained and they tend to drop out. The
problem is particularly grave in respect of women and persons
belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. It is
true that if the programme has organisational flexibility and rele-
vance of the content and methods with the felt needs and pro-
blems of the learners, it would fulfil the pre-conditions of sus-
rained participation of the learners Also, creation of an environ-
ment favourable to the organisation of mass programme can act
as an effective motivation. However, these may not suffice and
the matter needs to be examined in a much greater detail.
Exclusion of the vast majority of adult population from
the organised system of education will not cease only by organi-
sation of one-time adult education programme. The prespective
of life-long learning, and provision of arrangements therefore,
shall have to be kept in view in planning and preparing for
NAEP. From this point of view the NAEP will not conclude
with the end of the quinquennium. Systematic follow up pro-
grammes shall have to be organised almost with the beginning
of the NAEP — they would comprise a well organised system of
mass production of book and their dissemination and inclusion
in the coramunicational circuit of the neo-literates. It would be
desirable to follow up adult education programmes with organised
developmental action.
It is important that that the adult education movement should
be closely linked with the planning strategy, which emphasises
elimination of destitution through intensive area planning and
by giving employment orientation to development. For this
purpose close co-operation should be created with the dominant
development activity of the area, whether it goes under the rubric
of Integrated Rural Development or Integrated Tribal Develop-
ment of Employment Oriented Area Planning or DPAP, or what-
ever. The adult education programmes should strive to establish
mutually supportive linkages with that developmental activity.
Each State will decide about the comparative priority to
be given to various agencies. However, as a broad guideline,
it may be metioned that owing to the needs of careful local
level planning, precedence ought to be given to voluntary agen-
cies, In addition to voluntary agencies, a number of other
National Adult Education Programme 239
Agencies slialj have to be identified for implementation, these
could include Nehru Yuvak Kendras, educational institutions,
employers of various categories etc. The role of Government
would primarily be to co-ordinate the activities of these various
agencies and to fill in the gaps. In several parts of the country
the Government may have to take almost the entire responsibility.
Wherever it becomes necessary to do so, a beginning would be
made with a few compact blocks. The objective would be to con-
centrate effort in well-defined geographical area and then to
enlarge the activity.
In practice different agencies will organise programmes which
would appear most relevant and feasible to them. In all cases,
it needs to be underscored, the programmes would be expected
to be drawn up within the framework of the Policy Statement.
The range of the types of the programmes which may be organised
are indicated below ;
— Literacy with assure follow-up.
— Conventional functional literacy.
— Functional literacy supportive of a dominant deve-
lopment programme.
— Literacy with learning-cum-action groups.
— Literacy for conscientization and formation of orga-
nisations of the poor.
Resource Development
The conceptual position spelt out in the Policy Statement
implies creation and development of a resource base of NAEP.
The resource base should include creation of diversified and
need-based learning materials, equipping the various categories
of personnel for playing their role and infusion of a system of
evaluation and research to impart dynamism to the programme.
At the national level the Directorate of Adult Education as
well as the various agencies of the Central Government and
National' level voluntary agencies would form the National Re-
source Group. The important level in resource development
is the State Resource Centre (SRC) which, in co-operation with
the National Resource Group and continuously interacting with
the field, can become the focus for resource development. One
of the important functions of the SRC is to strive for devolution
of resource base at the district or project level. SRCs are not
to be institutions working in isolation from other institutions,
240 Kothari Commission
but ralhcr as coordinal ing agency for involvement of various
institutions and individuals having a contribution to make in
resource development. The cfilcacy of SRCs will depend on
the professional and technical capabilities developed by them,
their capacity to secure and coordinate resource (of institutions
and individuals) available in the region they purport to serve apd
on the support provided by the State Governments concerned.
However, the primary responsibility for resource support to
the programme shall have to be at the district/project level.
Resource development being of critical importance the Central
and Slate Governments as well as other agencies should be
willing to ptovide all necessary financial and administrative
support for this purpose.
Involvement of the people, i.e. the illiterate masses for whom
this Programme is primarily meant, with resource development
will be crucial to the authenticity of the resource base. This is
also inherent in the conceptual position as spelt out in the Policy
Statement. A number of practical ways shall have to be tried
for this involvement. This would include :
— Well-designed surveys to ascertain the learners’
needs.
— Realistic testing and try-out of methods and mate-
rials by securing uninhibited reaction of the potential
learners.
— Holding of frequent conferences and camps where
workers in the State/District Resource Centre think
and work with the rural people.
— Identification of a number of articulate village youth
and orienting them in the Programme with a view
to elicting through them the latent as well as mani-
fest problems of the potential learners groups.
— Systematic involvement of persons living and work-
ing among the rural people.
In addition to the potential learners it is necessary that the
Resource Centre, whether at the State level or at district level,
secures the contribution and criticism of their work by the super-
visors and instructors. Appropriate arrangements shall have to
be worked out to systematise this, without however letting it
National Adult Education Programme 241.
get into sterotypes. What is necessary is to always remember
that NAEP should be dynamically linked with the existential
needs of the learners and for this purpose it is necessary to
organise a two-way traffic, from the experts and administrators
to the learners and the other way round.
The various resource components may be identified as
follows :
Teaching-learning materials — ^The initial exercise in this con-
nection shall have to be about identification of learners’ needs.
Detailed curriculum, indicating among other things the expected
learning outcomes, shall have to be spelt out on the basis of the
identified learning needs. On the basis of the curriculum and
after necessary testing, teaching aids and learning materials shall
have to be prepared with the greatest care. The Policy Statement
makes reference to imparting of literacy skills in the spoken
language. Without taking this to an absurd limit, it should be
possible to organise learning in the spoken language, wherever
necessary with bridges built for the learner to acquire facility in
the regional language. Since it may not be possible to develop
teaching-learning materials at the district/project level within the
next one year, as an interim measure SRCs will prepare
materials in standard regional or sub-regional languages/dialects.
By the second or third year it should be possible to prepare
material at the district/project level.
Training— The categories for whom training shall have to be
provided would include; (i) Key functionaries at the national
and state levels, (ii) Professionals and experts in specific areas
such as curriculum construction, preparation of teaching learning
materials, training, evaluation etc. (iii) Functionaries at the
district, project and block levels, (iv) Field level supervisors,
(v) Adult education centre instructors.
Training of key personnel at the national, state and district
levels has to be the responsibility of the Central and State Govern-
ments SRCs should be able to co-ordinate training programmes
for project and block level functionaries as well as for supervisors
and the responsibility for organisation of training programmes
1 for the instructors of adult education centres shall have to rest
with the agency responsible for implementation of the programme
rthe field level. Various alternatives shall have to be explored
regarding duration, comparative emphasis on one-time and re-.
242 Kothari Commission
current training, methods of training etc. Unless unavoidable,
new training institutions should not be set up; the existing
ones should be encouraged to develop capability for training
of various categories of functionaries involved with NAEP.
Universities and other institutions of higher education may have
an important role to play in this behalf. Generally speaking,
the agencies responsible for training should function as co-
ordinators to secure the assistance of various institutions and in-
dividuals who can contribute in organisation of satisfactory train-
ing programmes.
Monitoring, evaluation and applied research — A mass edu-
cation programme, inevitably, faces the risk of considerable
wastage and misreporting. In this connection the importance of
systematic monitoring and education cannot be exaggerated. It
must permeate the entire programme and should provide feed-
back for introducing necessary correctives from time to time. It
is also important to have inbuilt arrangements for applied and
co-ordinated research so that the experience of NAEP is syste-
matically analysed and provides guidelines for furture action. The
Central Government and State Governments are naturally inte-
rested in systematic monitoring. Universities and institutions of
higher education as well as SRCs will have an important role to
play in evaluation and applied research. Monitoring and evaluation
mechanisms should get build at the district and project levels also,
for it is mainly there that the feedback has to be used for introduc-
tion of correctives.
The “instructional” Agencies
The governing consideration in assigning responsibility for
instructional arrangements should be the suitability of the persons
concerned to organise programmes with a grasp of the conceptual
standpoint and with a sprit of commitment. The various categories
of persons who could be assigned instructional responsibility
would include the following ;
(a) School teachers — In spite of several obvious limitation
based on the experience of their performance, particularly
authoritarianism and rigidities connected with the formal
system, the teachers may have to be one of the main agencies for
organisation of instructional arrangements in NAEP. Although,
ultimately work in an adult education centre could be made an
essential part of the duties of the teachers, for the present it would
National Adult Education Programme ^43
be desirable to keep this entirely voluntary. Even amongst persons
who volunteer to take this responsibility, a selection may have
to be made of persons who can be expected to be genuinely
committed to this programme. It would also be fair to pro-
vide an honorarium of Rs. 50/- per month for this work. Involve-
ment of school teachers can be facilitated if the support of their
professional organisations is secured.
(b) Students — Either as a part of the National Service
Scheme, or in any other appropriate manner, students in institut-
ions of higher education may provide a valuable agency for
organisation of adult education centres. For this purpose it
would be necessary to involve the teachers of these institutions
also. It would be necessary to re-think regarding the present
timing of academic sessions, the system of credits, certification etc.
Student involvement in this programme should be voluntary, but
the leaders in the university system shall have to create an atmos-
phere in which students find this work worthwhile and satisfying,
(c) Village Youth— There are a large number of unemployed
or under-employed village youth with some education who could
be entrusted this responsibility after they are given a carefully
planned training for necessary upgradation of their academic level
and an orientation for this responsibility. Besides, village youth
who are not unemploped or under-employed but who have had
some education could also be motivated to function as organisers
of adult education centres. Work among women and tribal people
can be greatly faciliated if persons drawn from their groups are
re-introduced as peer leaders to organise the adult education
centres. Such persons can continue to pursue their vocation and
can be paid an appropriate monthly stipend. The unemployed
or under-employed youth, who take up this programme on more
or less full-time basis, could also take responsibility for organ-
isation of non-formal education centres for pre-school children or
for 6—14 age-group. Apart from providing a most suitable cate-
gory of adult education instructors, this could also help generate
a new class of rural leadership and may also contribute to the
reduction of rural unemployment.
(d) Ex-servicemen and other retired personnel- This category
of persons can pluy an important role in urban as well as rural
areas. Retired personnel do need financial supplementation of
their income : equally important, they need an occupation to keep
themselves busy. Although there are certain obt'ious limitations
244 Kothari Commission
regarding their capacity to organise programmes which would be
in conformity witli the conceptual position stated in the Policy
Statement, they have the advantage of their experience and the
respect in which they arc generally held in the community.
(c) Field level Government and other functionaries — It
might be possible to involve functionaries such as the village
health worker, gram-sevika, bal-sevika, VLW, functionaries of
Co-operative Societies and Village Panchayats etc.
(f) Voluntary Social Workers — Particularly among the
urban areas, there are large number of persons who are willing
to make their contribution to community development. The
energies of such persons should be tapped and special arrange-
ments made for their involvement.
The Implementation Agencies
The Government will naturally have to gear up to shoulder
its responsibility in NAEP. On the basis of review, the existing
programmes run by Government agencies shall have to be re-
cast. It seems desirable that rather than spreading the pro-
gramme thin in all parts of all the districts in the country, in the
beginning effort should be concentrated in compact areas. The
size and the programmes of the Ministry of Education shall be
substantially enlarged with a view to widening the involvement
of various agencies. However, a mass movement which would
extend to such a large segment of population cannot be organised
by one Ministry or department. Every effort must be made to
involve other Ministries and departments with a view to sharing
the responsibility for organisation of adult education programmes.
The other Ministries/departments would be encouraged to or-
ganise such programmes, with a component of functional literacy,
as well as to supplement the learning activity being undertaken
through the educational authority. It would be. necessary for
those Ministries/departments to set apart within their sectoral
budgets funds or such adult education programmes. Whether
the programme forms part of a Central scheme, or is administer-
ed through any other agencies, the State Government will have to
play a most important role. For all practical purposes it can be
said that the implementation responsibility will rest squarely with
the State Governments. The State Governments will have to
reappraise the adult education programmes they have been run-
ning in the past and steps will have to be taken to appropriately
National Adult Education Programme 245
modify and strengthen them. While the primary responsibility
of co-ordination and implementation will rest with the State Gov-
ernments, the Central Government should be concerned not only
with policy formulation and issue of general guidelines but should
also oversee that the programmes are implemented by the State
Governments in accordance with the Policy Statement.
The programme which gives importance to flexibility and
diversity in organisation as well as its content can be best imple-
mented through voluntary agencies. At present the involvement
of voluntary agencies is somewhat limited and systematic attempts
shall have to be made (a) to involve all voluntary agencies
working at present in the field of adult education or haying the
potentiality to do so, and (b) to create circumstances for emer-
gence of new agencies, particularly in areas where such agencies
are few. It is also necessary to recognise the partnership role
of voluntary agencies and it would be desirable to consult them
in decision making at all levels, particularly in matters which
might affect the work of those agencies, as well as the procedures
for making grant shall have to be reviewed.
Whether or not NAEP becomes a mass movement will be
determined by the extent to which youth and students can be
motivated to commit themselves to this programme. It might
be comparatively simple to review the functioning of the Nehru
Yuvak Kendras and to concentrate their effort on adult educa-
tion Similarly, young men and women who have completed
their formal education and who feel stirred to participate in this
programme would be natural partners in this endeavour. The
critical group is the students in universities and other institutions
of higher education. For too long the universities have theoreti-
callv espoused about desirability of contact with the community.
The NAEP provides a challenging situation for the universities
and colleges to overcome their seclusion and to enter the main-
stlmofLss education. What is needed is that adult education
houM cease to be the concern of only one department, bnt should
„™l“ all members of faculty and of course, the students. Ind,.
T ere already discernible that the university system is pte-
pS°ng i"=lf for this massive involvement and to make necessary
reorganisations in its priorities.
The employers whether in private sector or public, must
play an important role in the spread of adult education among
246 Kotiiari Commission
tlicir employees. It might be appropriate, in due course, to
make organisation of adult education programmes obligatory for
all employers. Meanwhile, through organisations of trade and
industry and other employing agencies an effective beginning
could be made. The Government should provide leadership by
setting apart funds for this purpose in the public sector uuder-
takings as well as in construction w'orks. The resultant reduction
in the hours of work and marginally higher expenditure would
be adequately rewarded by improvement in the quality of per-
formance of the workers and by their positive participation in
the developmental activity. Education of the workers in the
organised sector can be greatly facilitated if the trade unions are
actively involved in this programme.
The local bodies, such as municipalities and panchayati raj
institutions, have been playing an important role in the field of
formal education as well as social education. These agencies,
which have civic and developmental functions, have the advantage
of being in touch with the people — ^their everyday problems as
well as their needs and, therefore, they should be expected- to
participate in implementation of NAEP.
Planning, Administration and Supervision
This is the first time that the Government have decided to
launch a well-planned programme of adult education for such
a large segment of the illiterate population. Planning for such
a programme and its implementation will require support by a
large variety of persons including social workers, perspective
planners, management experts, systems analysis, inter-disciplinary
terms of academics and, of course, adult-educators. Exercise in
planning have to take place not only in the Central and State
Governments but also in local bodies, voluntary agencies, uni-
versities, professional organisations of teachers etc. The Govern-
ment, however, have to play a leading role in involvement of the
various individuals, institutions and organisations. It is also
necessary to set up appropriate agencies for coordination and
catalisation at the State and district levels. For this purpose
State and District Boards of Adult Education should be set up as
soon as possible.
The existing administrative structures at the Central, State
and field levels are altogether insufficient for NAEP. A careful
National Adult Education Programme 247
examination has already been initiated to suggest the type of
administrative structures which would be most appropriate for
the task. Only broad indications can be given for the present :
1. Central Government : The set-up in the Ministry would be
appropriately strengthened keeping in view the respon-
sibility to be assigned to the Adult Education Division.
The Directorate of Adult Education will have to subs-
■ tantially enlarge its activities and necessary, where-
withal shall have to be provided for it to be able to
play the expected role. •
2. State level : Immediate steps are necessary to set up State
level administrative and planning machinary with an
independent Director, or an Additional Director with
the Director of Education at the helm. Necessary
supporting staff shall also have to be provided to the
State level organisation. Each State Government
would be advised to examine the need for a separate
division to deal with adult education in the Education
Department of the State Secretariat.
3. District and block level : The district selected for the
programmes may have to have Adult District Edu-
cation Officer with necessary supporting staff. Emp-
hasis shall have to be laid on adequacy of staff for
each project, for administration and supervision, as
well as for providing the necessary technical support.
4. Voluntary agencies : Necessary support shall have to be
provided to national and State level voluntary agen-
cies, State Resource Centres etc. to set up necessary
machinary to enable them to maks their contribution
to NAEP.
A programme of the magnitude must provide adequate arran-
rements for supervision and guidance. The supervisor should
lot be an Inspector in the traditional meaning of the word but
I specially selected professional with an aptitude to facilitate the
vork of the incharge of the Adult Education Centre.
One of the major deficiencies being faced by Government as
,vell as voluntary agencies is the absence of professional cadres
3f adult educators. Existing facilities m universities for prepra-
ion of such personnels are extremely limited and there is a case
248 Kothari Commission
for their expansion. Training programmes of varying varieties
for professional development shall also have to be organised by
Government, universities and voluntary agencies. In addition to
training, it would also be necessary to examine the pay structure
of the professional workers involved in adult education pro-
gramme. As far as possible, it would be desirable to ensure that
persons coopted into adult education system continue to grow
and progress within the system rather than being pushed out of
it.
Financing the NAEP
The past exerience has shown that owing to pressures of
various types it becomes necessary for the State Governments
to divert funds provided for adult education either to other pro-
grammes of education or to other sectors of development. It is
therefore, necessary to devise an assangement under which funds
earmarked for adult education cannot be so diverted. At the
same time, it has to be fully appreciated that the responsibility
for planning and implementation of the programme in a State
must rest with the State Governments, with the Central Govern-
ment being assigned the responsibility for wider involvement of
voluntary agencies, try-out of innovative programmes etc.
In addition to the mechanics of funding, it is necessary to
emphasise adequacy. A Group of Experts drawn from the
Planning Commission and the Ministry has come to the conclu-
sion that the per learner cost would be Rs. 60, excluding the
expenditure on Central and State level administrative structures,
evaluation and monitoring and research and innovation. The
Group has calculated this cost with reference to the number of
persons enrolled and not those who will successfully complete
the progarmme. The number of those who will do so may be
about to-thirds the number of persons enrolled. However, the
cost of some of the programmes may be somewhat less becuse
of shorter duration of some'of the urban programmes and volun-
tary contributions. It would be safe to assume that the per
learner cost would not be less than Rs. 80. The expenditure
on Central and State administrations, evaluation and research
etc. would be approximately 10 per cent of the total arrived at
on the basis of aggregate of per learner cost. Adequate funds on
the basis of these calculations will have to be provided.
National Adult Education Programme 249
In addition to the expenditure involved in organisation of
adult education programmes, provision shall have to be made,
of neo-literates and persons who have acquired literacy in the
formal system of education. It would be reasonable to provide
an amount of approximately 20 per cent of the total expenditure
for this purpose.
International Cooperation
The frontiers of poverty and illiteracy extend far beyond
national boundaries. The experiences and insights gained by one
country ought to be shared with other countries by mutual
exchange and continuing communication. Naturally, we cannot
but be conscious of our own financial and human resources,
which are not too limited when something so vital for the
nation’s destiny is at shoke. In formulating NAEP and its
implementation cooperation should be pledged to UNESCO and
other instrumentalities of international cooperation based on
mutual respect and equality. However, audacious the objectives
of NAEP be, we must begin humble with a spirit to learn from
those who have been harbingers in this field and from those who
have developed special capabilities.
Bibliography
Books
1. Report of the Education Commission (1964-66) : Education and
National Development .
Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1966.
2. Agarwal, J. C. : Major Recommendations of the Education
Commission, New Delhi, 1966
3. Bhatnagar, Sttresh : Kothari Commission — Vivechanatmak
Adhyayan. Meerut,
4. Pathak, P. D. & Tyagi, G. S. D. : Kothari Commission
Sujhava Aur Samiksha, Agra, 1967.
5. National Policy on Education : Publication no. 807, Ministry
of Education, Govt, of India.
Journals and Papers :
1. Bhartiya Shiksha (Hindi) : Post Box 52, Kanpur, May 1966,
October 1966, Dec., 1966.
2. Education (English) : Education Office 12, Khurshed Bagh,
Lucknow, Nos. 7, 8, 12; July, 1966; August
1965; and December 1966.
3. Examinations in Higher Education. 1. U. B. New Delhi. 1971.
4. Hindustan Times (English) : Hindustan Times Press, Delhi
(various dates).
5. Journal of Educational Research & Extension : —
Sri Ram Krishan Mission Vidhyalaya Teachers’
College, Coimbatore, Vol. Ill, Not. 2, 3, Oct.
1966 ; Jan. 1967.
6. Nayi Talim : Sarva Seva Sangh, Rajghat Varanasi,
September ; Oct. ; Dec., 1966.
7. Naya Shikshak : Directorate of Elementary and Secondary
Education of Rajasthan, Bikaner, January,
1966.
8. NIE Journal ; National Council of Educational Research and
Training, Aurobindoo Marg New Delhi-11,
Sep., Nov., 1966. •
National Adult Education Programme 251
P. Patriot (English Daily) : Delhi.
10. Sahitya Parichaya (Hindi) ; Vinod Pustak Mandir, Agra,
March, 1967.
11. Shivira (Hindi Monthly) ; Directorate of Elementary and
Secondary Education, Rajasthan-Bikaner,
October, 1966.
12. School of Education : The University of Michigan Bulletin,
Vol. 7, No. 1.
13. The Progress of Education (English) : A. V. Griha Prakashan
1786 Sada Shiv Peth Poona-2.
14. The Teacher To-day & Tomorrow : Publication No. 754,
Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1966.
15. Times of India (English) Daily : Times of India Press, Delhi.
16. Teacher Education : Indian Association of Teacher Educations.
New Delhi, Vol. IX, No. 3.
Reports
1. Draft Five year Plan 1978-83. Government of India Planning
Commission New Delhi.
2. National Adult Education Programme. Govt, of India.
Ministry of Education New Delhi.
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